108 年 國立臺灣大學食品科技研究所丁組《單元操作與輸送現象》
第 Problem 1 題15 分
An artificial kidney (as shown in Figure 1(a)) is a device that removes water and waste metabolites from blood. In one such device, the hollow fiber hemodialyzer (as shown in Figure 1(b)), blood flows from an artery through the insides of a bundle of hollow cellulose acetate fibers, and dialyzing fluid, which consists of water and various dissolved salts, flows on the outside of the fibers. Water and waste metabolites—principally urea, creatinine, uric acid, and phosphate ions—pass through the fiber walls into the dialyzing fluid, and the purified blood is returned to a vein.
🖼️【此處有附圖,請對照原卷】 Figure 1 (a) Hemodialysis process and (b) hollow fiber hemodialyzer
At some time during a dialysis the arterial and venous blood conditions are as follows:
| Item | Arterial (entering) Blood | Venous (exiting) Blood |
|---|---|---|
| Flow Rate | 200.0 mL/min | 195.0 mL/min |
| Urea (H₂NCONH₂) Concentration | 1.90 mg/mL | 1.75 mg/mL |
(a) Calculate the rates at which urea and water are being removed from the blood. (5 points)
(b) If the dialyzing fluid enters at a rate of 1250 mL/min and the exiting solution (dialysate) leaves at approximately the same rate, calculate the concentration of urea in the dialysate (solution outlet). (5 points)
(c) Suppose the total blood volume is 5.0 liters and the average rate of urea removal is that calculated in part (a). If a patient is dialyzed for 3.5 hours with an initial urea level of 2.9 mg/mL, what is the final value of the urea level? (Neglect the loss in total blood volume due to the removal of water in the dialyzer.) (5 points)
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本題考驗質量平衡在穩態及非穩態系統上的應用,特別是在生物醫學工程的腎臟透析情境。
(a) 計算尿素與水的移除速率
此小題考驗穩態質量平衡的概念。
-
尿素移除速率 (Urea Removal Rate):
尿素的移除速率可以透過計算進入血液中的尿素總量與離開血液的尿素總量之差來得到。
進入血液的尿素速率 = (動脈進入血流量) × (動脈尿素濃度)
離開血液的尿素速率 = (靜脈離開血流量) × (靜脈尿素濃度)
尿素移除速率 = (進入血液的尿素速率) - (離開血液的尿素速率)動脈進入血流量 =
動脈尿素濃度 =
進入血液的尿素速率 =靜脈離開血流量 =
靜脈尿素濃度 =
離開血液的尿素速率 =尿素移除速率 =
-
水移除速率 (Water Removal Rate):
水的移除速率可以透過計算進入血液的總血流量與離開血液的總血流量之差來得到。
進入血液的總血流量 =
離開血液的總血流量 =
水移除速率 =【答案】尿素移除速率為 ,水移除速率為 。
(b) 計算透析液出口處的尿素濃度
此小題考驗在穩態下,系統整體質量的平衡。假設透析液的進出量相等,且在透析過程中,尿素僅從血液轉移到透析液中。
-
透析液尿素攝取速率 (Urea Uptake Rate by Dialysate):
根據質量守恆,從血液中移除的尿素速率,等於透析液所攝取的尿素速率。
透析液尿素攝取速率 = 尿素移除速率 = -
透析液尿素濃度 (Urea Concentration in Dialysate):
透析液的尿素濃度可以透過透析液尿素攝取速率除以透析液的淨流量來計算。
題目提到透析液進入速率為 ,離開速率也約為相同速率。這表示透析液的淨流量(攝取尿素的流量)是該速率。
第 Problem 2 題20 分
A schematic diagram of the converging annulus spinneret is shown in Figure 2 which is used to fabricate hollow fiber membranes for hemodialysis as illustrated in Figure 1. In order to understand the rheological behaviors of a polymer solution in the spinneret through theoretical approach and facilitate the mathematical treatment, the annulus was divided into three sections, including a converging section between the first and the third sections. The polymer solution flows in the spinneret is non-Newtonian fluid. For a simple shear flow, the generalized power-law model for the spinning of polymer solutions can be simplified as follows:
If the maximum velocity of the polymer solution occurs at in Section I. Please derive the shear stress distribution in the Section I (10 points) and the expression of the shear stress at the outer wall (6 points). The assumptions of your derivation should also be defined (4 points).
🖼️【此處有附圖,請對照原卷】 Figure 2 A schematic diagram of the conical annulus spinneret.
[pDv/Dt = -∇p + μ∇²v + pg]
Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z):
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核心觀念
本題考查「圓柱座標下、穩態完全發展之非牛頓環形流」的剪應力分布。主要使用:
- 圓柱座標的軸向動量平衡。
- 剪應力在半徑方向的力平衡。
- 廣義冪律模型
由於速度最大值位於 ,故該處速度梯度為零:
解題方法與剪應力推導
令 Section I 的外半徑為 ,速度最大位置為
定義有效軸向驅動力為
在穩態、軸對稱、完全發展流動下,
圓柱座標的軸向動量方程簡化為
兩邊乘以 並積分:
因此
由最大速度位置的條件
可得
因此
代回後,Section I 的剪應力分布為
或寫成
此式在 時確實為零,符合速度最大值所在位置的條件。
與冪律模型的關係
由
可得
因此:
- 當 時,速度由內壁往最大速度位置增加,故 。
第 Problem 3 題15 分
During colonial time in Taiwan, Japanese built a dam on Sun Moon Lake for hydro-electric generation as they wanted to develop industry in their colony. Using the Central Mountain Range's Zhuoshui River as its water source and the natural Sun Moon Lake as a water-storage area, which was elevated to about 800 meters, water was sent to Menpai Lake. A 320-meter drop in height was used to generate electricity, creating 100,000 kilowatts of electric power. Now, consider about a similar system: a pump storage facility takes water from a river at night when demand is low and pumps it to a hilltop reservoir 500 ft above the river. The water is returned through turbine in the daytime to help meet peak demand.
(a) For two 30-inch pipes, each 2500 ft long and carrying 20000 gal/min, what pumping power is needed if the pump efficiency is 85 percent? The friction loss is estimated to be 15 ft of water. (5 points)
(b) How much power can be generated by the turbines using the same total flow rate? (5 points)
(c) What is the overall efficiency of this installation as an energy storage system? (5 points)
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核心觀念
本題考查泵浦與水輪機的能量轉換,以及泵浦儲能系統的往返效率。
主要公式如下:
- 流量換算:
- 水力功率:
其中:
- :水的比重量
- :體積流率,單位為
- :水頭,單位為 ft
- :功率,單位為 hp
- 泵浦效率:
因此:
題目未提供水輪機效率,因此依標準考題假設水輪機為理想水輪機,。
解題方法
兩支管線為並聯配置,每支管線流量為 ,因此總流量為:
泵浦將水由河流送至高出 的蓄水池,並且克服管路摩擦損失 ,所以泵浦所需總水頭為:
放水發電時,水由蓄水池經水輪機下降 。題目沒有給出發電端摩擦損失或水輪機效率,因此使用可用位能水頭 計算。
(a) 泵浦所需功率
泵浦需提供的水力功率為:
泵浦效率為 ,因此輸入泵浦的機械功率為:
換算成 kW:
因此:
或
(b) 水輪機可產生的功率
第 Problem 4 題20 分
Please define or explain the terms below:
(a) Thermally fully-developed condition
(b) Reynolds number for the internal flows
(c) Reynolds analogy
(d) Grashof number
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本題考驗學生對熱傳學和流熱耦合相關基本概念的理解。
(a) 熱完全發展條件 (Thermally Fully-Developed Condition)
- 定義: 在流體流經管道或通道的過程中,當流體的溫度分佈不再隨流動方向的變化而改變時,該流動被稱為熱完全發展。這意味著溫度剖面(即溫度隨橫截面位置的變化)在流動方向上保持不變。
- 物理意義: 在熱完全發展區,熱量傳遞的主要機制(如對流和傳導)達到某種平衡狀態,使得溫度梯度在流動方向上為零。換句話說, (其中 是流動方向),或者更精確地說,對於溫度剖面,。
- 與速度完全發展的關係: 在某些情況下,熱完全發展條件可能與速度完全發展條件同時發生。例如,對於恆定熱流密度和恆定壁溫的條件,如果流體是牛頓流體且熱物性恆定,則當速度完全發展時,溫度也會完全發展。但並非總是如此,例如,當邊界條件不同時(如恆定壁溫 vs. 恆定熱流密度),它們的發展區域可能不同。
- 重要性: 在熱完全發展區,傳熱係數 變為常數,這大大簡化了傳熱計算。
(b) 內部流動的雷諾數 (Reynolds Number for Internal Flows)
- 定義: 雷諾數 () 是描述流體流動慣性力與黏滯力之比的無因次參數。對於內部流動(如管道內流動),雷諾數定義為:
其中:- 是流體的密度。
- 是流體的平均速度。
- 是流體的特徵長度,對於圓管流動,通常取管道內徑。
- 是流體的動力黏度。
- 物理意義: 雷諾數的大小決定了流動是層流 (laminar flow) 還是紊流 (turbulent flow)。
- 對於圓管內流動,通常 為層流。
- 為過渡流 (transitional flow)。
- 為紊流。
- 重要性: 雷諾數是決定流動模式的關鍵參數,並直接影響對流傳熱係數和摩擦係數的計算。
(c) 雷諾類比 (Reynolds Analogy)
- 定義: 雷諾類比是一種理論,它將動量傳遞(流體摩擦)與熱量傳遞(對流傳熱)聯繫起來。它指出,在某些條件下,動量傳遞的係數與熱量傳遞的係數在形式上是相似的。
- 基本形式: 對於紊流,在光滑管道內,當流體為牛頓流體,且普ранд特數 () 約為 1 時,雷諾類比給出了以下關係:
第 Problem 5 題16 分
Pulverized coal pellets, which can be approximated as carbon spheres of radius ( mm), are burned in a pure oxygen atmosphere at 1450 K and 1 atm. Oxygen is transferred to the particle surface by diffusion process, where it is consumed in the reaction:
C + O₂ → CO₂
The reaction follows the first order kinetics and is of the form:
where m/s.
If the stationary medium and one-dimensional diffusion in -direction are considered, the changes in is neglected, the properties are constant, the perfect/ideal gas behavior is applied, and the temperature and total concentration (C) are uniform. At 1450 K, the binary diffusion coefficient for O₂ and CO₂ is m²/s. The gas constant R is m³ atm/kmol-K. (Please refer to Figure 3)
🖼️【此處有附圖,請對照原卷】 Figure 3. A schematic diagram of the system in Problem 5.
(a) Please apply the shell mass balance to derive the differential equation for the relationship between the flux of oxygen () and radius (5 points)
(b) Please show the relationship between the molar flux of oxygen () and the concentration of oxygen (3 points)
(c) Determine the steady-state oxygen molar consumption rate in kmol/s using the results in (a) and (b), and the appropriate boundary conditions (8 points).
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核心觀念
本題考查球形粒子周圍的穩態徑向擴散與表面化學反應:
- 穩態球殼無氣相反應,因此通過任一球面的氧氣莫耳流率相同,故 為常數。
- 反應 為一比一反應,氧氣消耗一莫耳同時生成二氧化碳一莫耳,因此氣相為等莫耳反向擴散,總莫耳通量為零。
- 表面反應速率有限,所以表面氧氣濃度 不為零,必須同時考慮擴散阻力與反應阻力。
解題方法
(a) 球殼質量平衡
取徑向向外為正方向。在半徑 至 的球殼中,穩態且氣相無反應:
因此:
或寫成微分方程:
積分得:
所以:
表面反應消耗氧氣,依題目給定:
故:
負號表示氧氣實際上是由外界向球面內部擴散。
(b) 氧氣莫耳通量與濃度的關係
對二元氣體,莫耳通量可寫為:
由於氧氣與二氧化碳等莫耳反向擴散:
又因為總濃度 均勻,且 ,因此:
(c) 穩態氧氣消耗速率
令表面氧氣濃度為:
由 (a)、(b):
整理得:
由 積分至任意半徑 :
遠離粒子處為純氧 वातावरण,因此:
第 Problem 6 題14 分
You are given a situation (batch process) for which a chemical X of density and specific heat occupies a volume of in an insulated vessel (see Figure 4). The chemical X is to be heated from the room temperature, , to a process temperature of by passing saturated steam at through a coiled, thin-walled, 20-mm-diameter (D) tube in the vessel. Steam condensation within the tube maintains an interior convection coefficient of , while the highly agitated liquid in the stirred vessel maintains an outside convection coefficient of .
Assuming that: (1) Constant properties, (2) Negligible heat loss from vessel to surroundings, (3) Chemical is isothermal, (4) Negligible work due to stirring, (5) Negligible thermal energy generation (or absorption) due to chemical reactions associated with the batch process, (6) Negligible tube wall conduction resistance, (7) Kinetic energy, potential energy, and flow work changes for steam can be neglected.
🖼️【此處有附圖,請對照原卷】 Figure 4. Batch process for heating the chemical X
(a) Applying the law of conservation of energy, please derive the expression for the total heat transfer area of tubing as a function of , and (8 points).
(b) If the chemical X is to be heated from 300 to 450 K in 60 min, what is the required length L of the submerged tubing? (6 points)
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核心觀念
本題考查:
- 批次加熱系統的能量守恆。
- 管內凝結蒸汽維持定溫 。
- 內、外對流熱阻串聯。
- 整體熱傳係數 。
- 管壁導熱熱阻可忽略,且薄壁管的內外表面積近似相同。
化學品完全攪拌且等溫,因此槽內化學品溫度可視為均勻的瞬時溫度 。
(a) 熱傳面積 的推導
由於管壁熱阻忽略,內、外對流熱阻為
定義整體熱傳係數 :
因此瞬時熱傳率為
化學品的質量為
對化學品進行能量平衡:
代入 :
分離變數:
由初始狀態 、,積分至最終狀態 、時間為 :
左側積分為
故所需總熱傳面積為
再利用
可得
其中 為題目給定的比熱;熱容量計算中不可省略 。
(b) 所需管長
已知