114 年 國立中正大學化學工程學系碩士班《單元操作與輸送現象》

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第 1 題5 分

  1. The chart below shows reduced viscosity as a function of reduced temperature.
    i) Explain why reduced properties are commonly used in engineering and scientific analyses.
    ii) Discuss why the viscosity of liquids decreases, while the viscosity of gases increases, with an increase in temperature.

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這一題的完整詳解

本題主要考查輸送現象中關於物性參數的無因次化應用與溫度對流體黏度的影響。

核心觀念:

  1. 無因次化 (Dimensionless Analysis): 透過將物理量表示為無因次參數,可以減少獨立變數的數量,並幫助建立相似性準則,從而將實驗結果推廣到不同尺度或不同物質的系統。
  2. 黏度與溫度關係: 液體黏度主要受分子間作用力影響,氣體黏度主要受分子動量交換影響。

詳解:

i) Explain why reduced properties are commonly used in engineering and scientific analyses.

Reduced properties, such as reduced temperature (Tr=T/TcT_r = T/T_c) and reduced pressure (Pr=P/PcP_r = P/P_c), are obtained by dividing an actual property by its critical value. They are commonly used in engineering and scientific analyses for the following reasons:

  1. Universality and Generalization: Many thermodynamic and transport properties of different substances can be correlated using reduced properties. This means that a single chart or equation can represent the behavior of a wide range of substances, simplifying analysis and prediction. This principle is the basis of the Law of Corresponding States.
  2. Data Reduction: Using reduced properties reduces the number of independent variables required to describe a system. For example, instead of needing separate charts for viscosity, compressibility, or enthalpy for every substance, one can often use a generalized chart based on reduced temperature and pressure.
  3. Scaling and Similarity: Reduced properties are crucial in scaling up experiments or designing systems of different sizes. If two systems are in corresponding states (i.e., have the same reduced properties), they tend to exhibit similar behavior. This is fundamental in similitude and dimensional analysis.
  4. Understanding Deviations from Ideal Behavior: Critical properties serve as reference points. Deviations from ideal gas behavior or ideal liquid behavior can be effectively analyzed using reduced coordinates.

**ii) Discuss why the viscosity of liquids decreases, while the viscosity of gases increases, wi

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第 2 題10 分

  1. A semi-infinite liquid with constant density (ρ\rho) and viscosity (μ\mu) is bounded below by a horizontal surface (the xz-plane). Initially, the liquid and the surface are stationary. Then at time t=0t=0, the solid surface begins to move in the positive x-direction with a constant velocity v0v_0 as shown in the following figure.

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The equation of motion for the x-component of the velocity is given by:
∂vx∂t=μρ∂2vx∂y2\frac{\partial v_x}{\partial t} = \frac{\mu}{\rho} \frac{\partial^2 v_x}{\partial y^2}

i) Derive the equation of motion for the x-component of the velocity using a shell balance approach.
ii) Non-dimensionalize the variable yy.
iii) Non-dimensionalize the partial differential equations.
iv) Write down the IC and BCs for the dimensionless differential equation.
v) Solve the partial differential equation.

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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念

本題是「突然開始移動平板所造成的非穩態黏性流動」,又稱史托克斯第一問題。流體動量透過黏性由壁面向上方擴散,所需觀念為:

  • 牛頓流體的剪應力關係:
    τxy=μ∂vx∂y\tau_{xy}=\mu\frac{\partial v_x}{\partial y}
  • 動量擴散率:
    ν=μρ\nu=\frac{\mu}{\rho}
  • 半無限域條件:
    y≥0y\geq 0
  • 速度變化的特徵長度:
    ℓ∼νt\ell\sim\sqrt{\nu t}

i) 以殼層平衡推導運動方程式

取位於 yy 到 y+Δyy+\Delta y 之間的流體薄殼,xx、zz 方向面積為

A=ΔxΔzA=\Delta x\Delta z

假設流動為

vx=vx(y,t),vy=vz=0v_x=v_x(y,t),\qquad v_y=v_z=0

因此沒有對流造成的 xx 方向動量傳遞,且無 xx 方向壓力梯度或體積力。

薄殼內的 xx 方向動量累積率為

ρAΔy∂vx∂t\rho A\Delta y\frac{\partial v_x}{\partial t}

上表面與下表面的黏性力合力為

Aτxy(y+Δy)−Aτxy(y)A\tau_{xy}(y+\Delta y)-A\tau_{xy}(y)

套用動量平衡:

ρAΔy∂vx∂t=A[τxy(y+Δy)−τxy(y)]\rho A\Delta y\frac{\partial v_x}{\partial t} = A\left[\tau_{xy}(y+\Delta y)-\tau_{xy}(y)\right]

令 Δy→0\Delta y\to 0,得

ρ∂vx∂t=∂τxy∂y\rho\frac{\partial v_x}{\partial t} = \frac{\partial \tau_{xy}}{\partial y}

由牛頓流體本構方程式

τxy=μ∂vx∂y\tau_{xy}=\mu\frac{\partial v_x}{\partial y}

且 μ\mu 為常數,因此

ρ∂vx∂t=μ∂2vx∂y2\rho\frac{\partial v_x}{\partial t} = \mu\frac{\partial^2v_x}{\partial y^2}

所以運動方程式為

∂vx∂t=μρ∂2vx∂y2\boxed{ \frac{\partial v_x}{\partial t} = \frac{\mu}{\rho} \frac{\partial^2v_x}{\partial y^2} }

或以動量擴散率 ν=μ/ρ\nu=\mu/\rho 表示為

∂vx∂t=ν∂2vx∂y2\boxed{ \frac{\partial v_x}{\partial t} = \nu\frac{\partial^2v_x}{\partial y^2} }

ii) yy 方向的無因次化

由方程式中的尺度平衡:

vxt∼νvxℓ2\frac{v_x}{t}\sim \nu\frac{v_x}{\ell^2}

可得黏性動量擴散距離

ℓ∼νt\ell\sim\sqrt{\nu t}

因此定義無因次相似變數

η=y2νt\boxed{ \eta=\frac{y}{2\sqrt{\nu t}} }

代入 ν=μ/ρ\nu=\mu/\rho:

η=y2(μ/ρ)t=y2ρμt\boxed{ \eta = \frac{y}{2\sqrt{(\mu/\rho)t}} = \frac{y}{2}\sqrt{\frac{\rho}{\mu t}} }

其中係數 22 是為了使最後解直接寫成互補誤差函數 erfc⁡(η)\operatorname{erfc}(\eta)。


iii) 偏微分方程式的無因次化

取任意固定參考長度 LL,定義

Y=yL,T=νtL2,U=vxv0Y=\frac{y}{L},\qquad T=\frac{\nu t}{L^2},\qquad U=\frac{v_x}{v_0}

因此

vx=v0Uv_x=v_0U

時間與空間微分分別為

∂vx∂t=v0νL2∂U∂T\frac{\partial v_x}{\partial t} = v_0\frac{\nu}{L^2}\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}

以及

∂2vx∂y2=v0L2∂2U∂Y2\frac{\partial^2v_x}{\partial y^2} = \frac{v_0}{L^2} \frac{\partial^2U}{\partial Y^2}

代入原方程式:

v0νL2∂U∂T=νv0L2∂2U∂Y2v_0\frac{\nu}{L^2}\frac{\partial U}{\partial T} = \nu\frac{v_0}{L^2} \frac{\partial^2U}{\partial Y^2}

故無因次偏微分方程式為

∂U∂T=∂2U∂Y2\boxed{ \frac{\partial U}{\partial T} = \frac{\partial^2U}{\partial Y^2} }

本題沒有對流項,因此無因次方程式中不會出現雷諾數。

針對半無限域且沒有特定幾何長度的情況,令

U(Y,T)=F(η),η=Y2T=y2νtU(Y,T)=F(\eta),\qquad \eta=\frac{Y}{2\sqrt{T}} =\frac{y}{2\sqrt{\nu t}}

由

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第 3 題25 分

  1. A double-pipe heat exchanger is used, where cold water enters the inner pipe at an inlet temperature of 30°C and a flow velocity of 2 m/s. Hot water enters the outer pipe at an inlet temperature of 70°C. The fluids flow in a countercurrent configuration. The inner pipe diameter is 0.05 m, and the outer pipe diameter is 0.1 m. The inner pipe wall thickness of 1 mm and pipe material thermal conductivity of 50WmK50 \frac{W}{mK}.

The physical properties of cold and hot water are the same: density ρ=1000kgm3\rho = 1000 \frac{kg}{m^3}, dynamic viscosity μ=0.001Pa⋅s\mu=0.001 Pa \cdot s, specific heat capacity cp=4.2kJkg⋅Kc_p = 4.2 \frac{kJ}{kg \cdot K}, and thermal conductivity k=0.6WmKk = 0.6 \frac{W}{mK}. If the outlet temperature of the cold water is 40°C and the flow rates of cold and hot water are identical, calculate the required length of the double-pipe heat exchanger. (25 points)

Hint: Nu=0.023Re0.8PrnNu = 0.023Re^{0.8}Pr^n, where n=0.4n = 0.4 (hot side) or n=0.3n=0.3 (cold side)
Validity: 0.6≤Pr≤1600.6 \le Pr \le 160; Re>10000Re > 10000; D/d>10D/d > 10

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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念

本題考查雙管式逆流熱交換器的:

  1. 熱量衡算
  2. 管內與環形通道的 Reynolds number
  3. Dittus–Boelter correlation 求對流熱傳係數
  4. 圓管壁導熱熱阻
  5. 逆流熱交換器的對數平均溫差(LMTD)
  6. 由總熱傳係數求熱交換器長度

基本熱量關係為

Q=m˙cpΔTQ=\dot m c_p\Delta T

熱交換器設計方程式為

Q=UiAiΔTlmQ=U_i A_i\Delta T_{\mathrm{lm}}

其中 UiU_i 為以內管內表面積為基準的總熱傳係數,Ai=πdiLA_i=\pi d_iL。


解題方法

1. 冷流體質量流率

內管內徑為

di=0.05 md_i=0.05\ \mathrm{m}

冷水流速為 vc=2 m/sv_c=2\ \mathrm{m/s},因此體積流率為

V˙c=vcπdi24\dot V_c=v_c\frac{\pi d_i^2}{4} V˙c=2(π(0.05)24)=3.927×10−3 m3/s\dot V_c =2\left(\frac{\pi(0.05)^2}{4}\right) =3.927\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{m^3/s}

質量流率為

m˙c=ρV˙c=1000(3.927×10−3)=3.927 kg/s\dot m_c=\rho\dot V_c =1000(3.927\times10^{-3}) =3.927\ \mathrm{kg/s}

因冷、熱水的密度相同,且題目給定流量相同,所以

m˙h=m˙c=3.927 kg/s\dot m_h=\dot m_c=3.927\ \mathrm{kg/s}

2. 熱負荷

冷水由 30∘C30^\circ\mathrm{C} 升至 40∘C40^\circ\mathrm{C},故

Q=m˙ccp(Tc,o−Tc,i)Q=\dot m_c c_p(T_{c,o}-T_{c,i})

取

cp=4.2 kJ/(kg⋅K)=4200 J/(kg⋅K)c_p=4.2\ \mathrm{kJ/(kg\cdot K)} =4200\ \mathrm{J/(kg\cdot K)}

因此

Q=(3.927)(4200)(40−30)Q=(3.927)(4200)(40-30) Q=1.649×105 W\boxed{Q=1.649\times10^5\ \mathrm{W}}

即

Q≈164.9 kWQ\approx164.9\ \mathrm{kW}

3. 熱水出口溫度

熱水釋放的熱量等於冷水吸收的熱量:

m˙hcp(Th,i−Th,o)=m˙ccp(Tc,o−Tc,i)\dot m_hc_p(T_{h,i}-T_{h,o}) = \dot m_cc_p(T_{c,o}-T_{c,i})

由於 m˙h=m˙c\dot m_h=\dot m_c 且兩側 cpc_p 相同,因此兩側溫度變化量相同:

Th,i−Th,o=40−30=10∘CT_{h,i}-T_{h,o}=40-30=10^\circ\mathrm{C}

故

Th,o=70−10=60∘CT_{h,o}=70-10=60^\circ\mathrm{C}

4. 計算 Prandtl number

Pr=cpμkPr=\frac{c_p\mu}{k} Pr=(4200)(0.001)0.6=7.00Pr= \frac{(4200)(0.001)}{0.6} =7.00

5. 冷水側熱傳係數

冷水在內管中流動,其 Reynolds number 為

Rec=ρvcdiμRe_c=\frac{\rho v_cd_i}{\mu} Rec=(1000)(2)(0.05)0.001=1.00×105Re_c= \frac{(1000)(2)(0.05)}{0.001} =1.00\times10^5

符合湍流條件 Re>10000Re>10000。

冷水側使用 n=0.3n=0.3:

Nuc=0.023Rec0.8Pr0.3Nu_c=0.023Re_c^{0.8}Pr^{0.3} Nuc=0.023(1.00×105)0.8(7.00)0.3≈412Nu_c =0.023(1.00\times10^5)^{0.8}(7.00)^{0.3} \approx412

由

Nuc=hcdikNu_c=\frac{h_c d_i}{k}

得到

hc=Nuckdi=(412)(0.6)0.05h_c=\frac{Nu_ck}{d_i} =\frac{(412)(0.6)}{0.05} hc≈4.95×103 W/(m2⋅K)\boxed{h_c\approx4.95\times10^3\ \mathrm{W/(m^2\cdot K)}}

6. 熱水側熱傳係數

內管壁厚度為 1 mm1\ \mathrm{mm},故內管外徑為

do=di+2t=0.05+2(0.001)=0.052 md_o=d_i+2t =0.05+2(0.001) =0.052\ \mathrm{m}

熱水流經外管與內管之間的環形通道。環形通道截面積為

Ah=π4(Do2−do2)A_h=\frac{\pi}{4}(D_o^2-d_o^2)

其中外管內徑取 Do=0.1 mD_o=0.1\ \mathrm{m},因此

Ah=π4[(0.1)2−(0.052)2]=5.730×10−3 m2A_h=\frac{\pi}{4}\left[(0.1)^2-(0.052)^2\right] =5.730\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{m^2}

熱水平均流速為

vh=m˙hρAh=3.927(1000)(5.730×10−3)≈0.685 m/sv_h=\frac{\dot m_h}{\rho A_h} = \frac{3.927}{(1000)(5.730\times10^{-3})} \approx0.685\ \mathrm{m/s}

環形通道的水力直徑為

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第 4 題10 分

  1. In a chemical pipeline, corrosion occurs primarily due to the reaction between water and organic chlorides, producing ferric chloride (FeCl3). When hydrochloric acid (HCl) is present, the corrosion rate is mainly controlled by the mass transfer rate of water to the pipe wall. Water (H2O) is the limiting reactant, and corrosion occurs only when water reaches the pipe wall. The reaction at the pipe wall is extremely fast, and the water concentration at the wall (CwC_w) can be assumed to be zero. The primary reaction can be simplified as:
    2Fe+6H2O+3Cl2→2FeCl3+6H22Fe + 6H_2O + 3Cl_2 \rightarrow 2FeCl_3 + 6H_2

The known parameters are: Water concentration in the bulk(C∞C_\infty): 10 ppm(mass); Water diffusivity DAB=1.5×10−9D_{AB}=1.5 \times 10^{-9} m2^2/s; Flow velocity: u=0.2u = 0.2 m/s; Pipe diameter: D=0.05D = 0.05 m; Fluid density: ρ=1000\rho = 1000 kg/m3^3; Fluid viscosity: μ=1.0×10−3\mu = 1.0 \times 10^{-3} kg/m-s; Molar mass of Fe: 55.845 g/mol; Molar mass of H2O: 18 g/mol.

i) Calculate mass transfer coefficient, kck_c when f=0.22f = 0.22. (10 points)
ii) Calculate the corrosion rate of the pipe (Fe loss). (15 points)

Hint:
Coulburn-Chilton J-factor analogy:
JM=f2=JH=NuRePr3=JD=ShReSc3J_M = \frac{f}{2} = J_H = \frac{Nu}{RePr^3} = J_D = \frac{Sh}{ReSc^3}
Mass transfer:
J=kc⋅A⋅ΔCJ = k_c \cdot A \cdot \Delta C
Where:
JJ: mass transfer rate
AA: the pipe cross area,
ΔC\Delta C: concentration driving force (C∞−CwC_\infty - C_w),
kck_c: mass transfer coefficient

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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念

本題考查管內流動下的質量傳遞,利用 Coulburn–Chilton JJ factor analogy,由流體摩擦因子 ff 求 Sherwood number ShSh,再求質量傳遞係數 kck_c。

使用定義:

Re=ρuDμRe=\frac{\rho uD}{\mu} Sc=μρDABSc=\frac{\mu}{\rho D_{AB}}

質量傳遞 JJ factor 為

JD=ShRe Sc1/3=f2J_D=\frac{Sh}{Re\,Sc^{1/3}}=\frac{f}{2}

因此

Sh=f2Re Sc1/3Sh=\frac{f}{2}Re\,Sc^{1/3}

質量傳遞係數與 Sherwood number 的關係為

Sh=kcDDABSh=\frac{k_cD}{D_{AB}}

題目中的 Sc3Sc^3 應解讀為常見關係式中的 Sc1/3Sc^{1/3}。


i) 質量傳遞係數 kck_c

1. 計算 Reynolds number

Re=(1000)(0.2)(0.05)1.0×10−3Re=\frac{(1000)(0.2)(0.05)}{1.0\times10^{-3}} Re=1.00×104Re=1.00\times10^4

2. 計算 Schmidt number

Sc=μρDABSc=\frac{\mu}{\rho D_{AB}} Sc=1.0×10−3(1000)(1.5×10−9)Sc=\frac{1.0\times10^{-3}} {(1000)(1.5\times10^{-9})} Sc=666.7Sc=666.7

因此

Sc1/3=666.71/3=8.736Sc^{1/3}=666.7^{1/3}=8.736

3. 由 JD=f/2J_D=f/2 求 Sherwood number

已知

f=0.22f=0.22

所以

JD=f2=0.11J_D=\frac{f}{2}=0.11

由

ShRe Sc1/3=0.11\frac{Sh}{Re\,Sc^{1/3}}=0.11

得

Sh=0.11(1.00×104)(8.736)Sh=0.11(1.00\times10^4)(8.736) Sh=9.61×103Sh=9.61\times10^3

4. 求質量傳遞係數

kc=ShDABDk_c=\frac{ShD_{AB}}{D} kc=(9.61×103)(1.5×10−9)0.05k_c= \frac{(9.61\times10^3)(1.5\times10^{-9})}{0.05} kc=2.88×10−4 m/s\boxed{k_c=2.88\times10^{-4}\ \text{m/s}}

ii) 鐵管腐蝕速率

1. 水的質量濃度

水的濃度為 1010 ppm,表示質量分率為

10 ppm=10×10−610\ \text{ppm}=10\times10^{-6}

以流體密度換算為質量濃度:

C∞=(10×10−6)(1000)C_\infty=(10\times10^{-6})(1000) C∞=0.010 kg/m3C_\infty=0.010\ \text{kg/m}^3

由於管壁反應極快,且

Cw=0C_w=0

因此濃度差為

ΔC=C∞−Cw=0.010 kg/m3\Delta C=C_\infty-C_w=0.010\ \text{kg/m}^3

2. 水的質量傳遞速率

依題目提示,取管截面積為傳遞面積:

A=πD24A=\frac{\pi D^2}{4} A=π(0.05)24=1.963×10−3 m2A=\frac{\pi(0.05)^2}{4} =1.963\times10^{-3}\ \text{m}^2

水傳遞至管壁的質量速率為

m˙H2O=kcAΔC\dot m_{H_2O}=k_cA\Delta C m˙H2O=(2.88×10−4)(1.963×10−3)(0.010)\dot m_{H_2O} =(2.88\times10^{-4}) (1.963\times10^{-3})(0.010) m˙H2O=5.66×10−9 kg/s\dot m_{H_2O}=5.66\times10^{-9}\ \text{kg/s}

3. 由反應化學計量關係換算鐵損失

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其他考古題

114 年中正大學的其他科目

中正大學《單元操作與輸送現象》其他年度

其他學校的化工與材料考古題