108 年 國立臺灣大學生物機電系碩士班乙組《熱力學(D)》

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第 1 題

  1. The Stirling engine is a heat engine that absorbs heat from an external source. The working substance
    can be any gas. The engine consists of two cylinders with pistons, one in thermal contact with each reservoir
    (see Figure 1 below). Between the two cylinders is a passageway where gas flows past a regenerator whose
    temperature varies gradually from the hot side to the cold side. The heat capacity of the regenerator is very
    large, so its temperature is affected very little by the gas flowing past. The four steps of the engine's cycle
    are as follows:
    i. Power stroke. While in the hot cylinder at temperature ThT_h, the gas absorbs heat and expands
    isothermally, pushing the hot piston outward. The piston in the cold cylinder remains at rest, all the
    way inward as shown in the figure.
    ii. Transfer to the cold cylinder. The hot piston moves in while the cold piston moves out, transferring the
    gas to the cold cylinder at constant volume. While on its way, the gas flows past the regenerator,
    giving up heat and cooling to TcT_c.
    iii. Compression stroke. The cold piston moves in, isothermally compressing the gas back to its original
    volume as the gas gives up heat to the cold reservoir. The hot piston remains at rest, all the way in.
    iv. Transfer to hot cylinder. The cold piston moves the rest of the way in while the hot piston moves out,
    transferring the gas back to the hot cylinder at constant volume. While on its way, the gas flows past
    the regenerator, absorbing heat until it is again at ThT_h.

(a) Draw a PVPV diagram for this idealized Stirling cycle. (8%)
(b) Forget about the regenerator for the moment. Then, during step ii, the gas will give up heat to the cold
reservoir instead of to the regenerator; during step iv, the gas will absorb heat from the hot reservoir.
Calculate the efficiency of the engine in this case, assuming that the gas is ideal. Express your answer in
terms of the temperature ratio Th/TcT_h/T_c and the compression ratio (the ratio of the maximum and
minimum volumes). Show that the efficiency is less than that of a Carnot engine operating between the
same temperatures. (8%)
(c) Now put the regenerator back. Argue that, if it works perfectly, the efficiency of a Stirling engine is the
same as that of a Carnot engine. (8%)
(d) Discuss, in some detail, the various advantages and disadvantages of a Stirling engine, compared to other
engines. (6%)

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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念

本題考查理想氣體的 Stirling 循環、PP–VV 圖、等溫過程、等體積過程、熱效率,以及再生器對效率的影響。

設:

  • 最小體積為 Vmin⁡V_{\min}
  • 最大體積為 Vmax⁡V_{\max}
  • 壓縮比為
    r=Vmax⁡Vmin⁡r=\frac{V_{\max}}{V_{\min}}
  • 高溫熱源溫度為 ThT_h
  • 低溫熱源溫度為 TcT_c
  • 氣體莫耳數為 nn
  • 定容莫耳熱容量為 CvC_v

理想氣體遵守:

PV=nRTPV=nRT

熱效率定義為:

η=WnetQin=1−QoutQin\eta=\frac{W_{\mathrm{net}}}{Q_{\mathrm{in}}} =1-\frac{Q_{\mathrm{out}}}{Q_{\mathrm{in}}}

(a) PP–VV 圖

四個狀態點可定義為:

  • A=(Vmin⁡,Th)A=(V_{\min},T_h)
  • B=(Vmax⁡,Th)B=(V_{\max},T_h)
  • C=(Vmax⁡,Tc)C=(V_{\max},T_c)
  • D=(Vmin⁡,Tc)D=(V_{\min},T_c)

循環方向為 A→B→C→D→AA\to B\to C\to D\to A。

P
↑
│        A ─────────────→ B
│        ╲               │
│         ╲              │  等體積冷卻
│          ╲             ↓
│        D ←──────────── C
│
└────────────────────────────→ V
       Vmin              Vmax

更精確地說:

  1. A→BA\to B:在 ThT_h 下等溫膨脹。
  2. B→CB\to C:體積固定為 Vmax⁡V_{\max},氣體由 ThT_h 冷卻至 TcT_c。
  3. C→DC\to D:在 TcT_c 下等溫壓縮。
  4. D→AD\to A:體積固定為 Vmin⁡V_{\min},氣體由 TcT_c 加熱至 ThT_h。

PP–VV 圖中,順時針循環代表氣體對外做正功。


(b) 沒有再生器時的效率

等溫膨脹 A→BA\to B

理想氣體等溫膨脹時,內能不變,因此:

QAB=WABQ_{AB}=W_{AB}

其中:

WAB=nRThln⁡Vmax⁡Vmin⁡=nRThln⁡rW_{AB} =nRT_h\ln\frac{V_{\max}}{V_{\min}} =nRT_h\ln r

所以高溫熱源在此步驟提供的熱量為:

QAB=nRThln⁡rQ_{AB}=nRT_h\ln r

等體積冷卻 B→CB\to C

此時氣體由 ThT_h 冷卻至 TcT_c,體積不變,所以不做功:

WBC=0W_{BC}=0

放出的熱量大小為:

QBC,out=nCv(Th−Tc)Q_{BC,\mathrm{out}}=nC_v(T_h-T_c)

等溫壓縮 C→DC\to D

在 TcT_c 下等溫壓縮,氣體對外做功為負;排放至冷源的熱量大小為:

QCD,out=nRTcln⁡Vmax⁡Vmin⁡=nRTcln⁡rQ_{CD,\mathrm{out}} =nRT_c\ln\frac{V_{\max}}{V_{\min}} =nRT_c\ln r

等體積加熱 D→AD\to A

氣體由 TcT_c 加熱至 ThT_h,體積不變,因此外界輸入熱量為:

QDA,in=nCv(Th−Tc)Q_{DA,\mathrm{in}}=nC_v(T_h-T_c)

總輸入熱量

沒有再生器時,等體積加熱也必須由高溫熱源供熱,因此:

Qin=nRThln⁡r+nCv(Th−Tc)Q_{\mathrm{in}} =nRT_h\ln r+nC_v(T_h-T_c)

淨功

等體積步驟不做功,因此淨功只來自兩個等溫過程:

Wnet=nRThln⁡r−nRTcln⁡rW_{\mathrm{net}} =nRT_h\ln r-nRT_c\ln r Wnet=nR(Th−Tc)ln⁡rW_{\mathrm{net}} =nR(T_h-T_c)\ln r

熱效率

因此:

η=nR(Th−Tc)ln⁡rnRThln⁡r+nCv(Th−Tc)\eta = \frac{nR(T_h-T_c)\ln r} {nRT_h\ln r+nC_v(T_h-T_c)}

約去 nRnR:

η=(Th−Tc)ln⁡rThln⁡r+CvR(Th−Tc)\boxed{ \eta = \frac{(T_h-T_c)\ln r} {T_h\ln r+\dfrac{C_v}{R}(T_h-T_c)} }

以溫度比 x=Th/Tcx=T_h/T_c 表示:

η=(x−1)ln⁡rxln⁡r+CvR(x−1)\boxed{ \eta = \frac{(x-1)\ln r} {x\ln r+\dfrac{C_v}{R}(x-1)} }

也可寫成:

η=1−TcTh1+CvRTh−TcThln⁡r\boxed{ \eta = \frac{1-\dfrac{T_c}{T_h}} {1+\dfrac{C_v}{R} \dfrac{T_h-T_c}{T_h\ln r}} }

與 Carnot 效率比較

同溫度範圍的 Carnot 循環效率為:

ηCarnot=1−TcTh=Th−TcTh\eta_{\mathrm{Carnot}} =1-\frac{T_c}{T_h} =\frac{T_h-T_c}{T_h}

而本題效率為:

η=1−TcTh1+CvRTh−TcThln⁡r\eta = \frac{1-\dfrac{T_c}{T_h}} {1+\dfrac{C_v}{R} \dfrac{T_h-T_c}{T_h\ln r}}

由於 Cv>0C_v>0、Th>TcT_h>T_c 且 r>1r>1,所以分母嚴格大於 11,因此:

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第 2 題

  1. In a hydrogen fuel cell, the steps of the chemical reaction are
    at-electrode: H2+2OH−→2H2O+2e−H_2 + 2OH^- \rightarrow 2H_2O + 2e^-
    at + electrode: 12O2+2H2O+2e−→2OH−\frac{1}{2}O_2 + 2H_2O + 2e^- \rightarrow 2OH^-

Suppose that the fuel cell is to be operated at 75°C and atmospheric pressure. We wish to estimate the
maximum electrical work done by the cell, using only the room-temperature data in Table 1 (at the very end
of exam sheet). Let us assume GG for both H2H_2 and O2O_2 to be zero at 25°C.
(a) Estimate the Gibbs free energy of a mole of H2H_2, O2O_2, and H2OH_2O at 75°C. (8%)
(b) Calculate the maximum electrical work done by the fuel cell at 75°C, for one mole of hydrogen fuel.
Compare to the ideal performance of the cell at 25°C. (8%)
(c) Calculate the voltage of the cell. (7%)
(d) Assuming the atmospheric temperature is 25°C. Compare and comment on the efficiency of a Carnot
engine, operating at the same temperature of the fuel cell, and the fuel cell. (7%)

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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念

可逆燃料電池輸出的最大電功等於反應吉布斯自由能變化的負值:

Welec,max=−ΔGrxnW_{\mathrm{elec,max}}=-\Delta G_{\mathrm{rxn}}

計算溫度改變後的 GG,假設熱容量 CpC_p 在 25∘C25^\circ\mathrm{C} 至 75∘C75^\circ\mathrm{C} 間近似不變,使用:

H(T)=H(T0)+Cp(T−T0)H(T)=H(T_0)+C_p(T-T_0) S(T)=S(T0)+Cpln⁡TT0S(T)=S(T_0)+C_p\ln\frac{T}{T_0} G(T)=H(T)−TS(T)G(T)=H(T)-TS(T)

本題反應為:

H2(g)+12O2(g)→H2O(l)\mathrm{H_2(g)+\frac12O_2(g)\rightarrow H_2O(l)}

解題方法與計算

取 T0=298 KT_0=298\ \mathrm{K}、T=348 KT=348\ \mathrm{K},並將表列 CpC_p 換算為 kJ mol−1K−1\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}K^{-1}}。題目指定 H2\mathrm{H_2} 與 O2\mathrm{O_2} 在 25∘C25^\circ\mathrm{C} 的 GG 為零,因此兩種氣體以 G(T0)=0G(T_0)=0 為基準計算。

(a) 75∘C75^\circ\mathrm{C} 時各物質的吉布斯自由能

對 H2(g)\mathrm{H_2(g)}:

G348−G298=Cp(348−298)−[348(S298+Cpln⁡348298)−298S298]G_{348}-G_{298} =C_p(348-298)-\left[348\left(S_{298}+C_p\ln\frac{348}{298}\right)-298S_{298}\right]

代入表列 Cp=0.02882 kJ mol−1K−1C_p=0.02882\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}K^{-1}}、S298=0.13068 kJ mol−1K−1S_{298}=0.13068\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}K^{-1}}:

G348(H2)≈−6.65 kJ mol−1G_{348}(\mathrm{H_2})\approx-6.65\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}

對 O2(g)\mathrm{O_2(g)},代入 Cp=0.02938 kJ mol−1K−1C_p=0.02938\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}K^{-1}}、S298=0.20514 kJ mol−1K−1S_{298}=0.20514\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}K^{-1}}:

G348(O2)≈−10.37 kJ mol−1G_{348}(\mathrm{O_2})\approx-10.37\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}

對 H2O(l)\mathrm{H_2O(l)},表列 G298=−237.13 kJ mol−1G_{298}=-237.13\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}、Cp=0.07529 kJ mol−1K−1C_p=0.07529\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}K^{-1}}、S298=0.06991 kJ mol−1K−1S_{298}=0.06991\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}K^{-1}}。溫度修正量約為 −3.80 kJ mol−1-3.80\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}},所以:

G348(H2O(l))≈−240.93 kJ mol−1G_{348}(\mathrm{H_2O(l)})\approx-240.93\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}

(b) 最大電功,並與 25∘C25^\circ\mathrm{C} 比較

每莫耳氫氣反應的自由能變化為:

ΔG348=G348(H2O)−G348(H2)−12G348(O2)\Delta G_{348} =G_{348}(\mathrm{H_2O}) -G_{348}(\mathrm{H_2}) -\frac12G_{348}(\mathrm{O_2}) ΔG348=−240.93−(−6.65)−12(−10.37)≈−229.09 kJ mol−1\Delta G_{348} =-240.93-(-6.65)-\frac12(-10.37) \approx-229.09\ \mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}
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第 3 題

  1. A power plant produces 1 GW of electricity, at an efficiency of 40% (typical of today's coal-fired plants).
    Assuming the heat capacity of water at room temperature is 4.2 kJ/mol, and other phase transformation
    properties are shown in Figure 2.
    (a) At what rate does this plant expel waste heat into its environment? (8%)
    (b) Assume first that the cold reservoir for this plant is a river whose flow rate is 100 m³/s. By how much
    will the temperature of the river increase? (8%)
    (c) To avoid this "thermal pollution" of the river, the plant could instead be cooled by evaporation of river
    water. At what rate must the water evaporate? What fraction of the river must be evaporated? (8%)

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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念

本題考查熱機效率、能量守恆,以及河水吸熱與水蒸發吸熱:

η=W˙Q˙in\eta=\frac{\dot W}{\dot Q_{\mathrm{in}}}

對熱機作能量平衡:

Q˙in=W˙+Q˙waste\dot Q_{\mathrm{in}}=\dot W+\dot Q_{\mathrm{waste}}

河水升溫所吸收的熱:

Q˙=n˙CpΔT\dot Q= \dot n C_p\Delta T

水蒸發所需熱量:

Q˙=n˙vapL\dot Q=\dot n_{\mathrm{vap}}L

其中水的莫耳質量取 18 g/mol=0.018 kg/mol18\ \mathrm{g/mol}=0.018\ \mathrm{kg/mol}。


解題方法與計算

(a) 植物排出的廢熱率

發電功率為

W˙=1 GW=1.0×106 kJ/s\dot W=1\ \mathrm{GW}=1.0\times10^6\ \mathrm{kJ/s}

效率為 40%40\%,因此輸入熱功率為

Q˙in=W˙η=1.0×1060.40=2.5×106 kJ/s\dot Q_{\mathrm{in}} =\frac{\dot W}{\eta} =\frac{1.0\times10^6}{0.40} =2.5\times10^6\ \mathrm{kJ/s}

排出的廢熱率為

Q˙waste=Q˙in−W˙=2.5×106−1.0×106\dot Q_{\mathrm{waste}} =\dot Q_{\mathrm{in}}-\dot W =2.5\times10^6-1.0\times10^6 Q˙waste=1.5×106 kJ/s=1.5 GW\boxed{\dot Q_{\mathrm{waste}}=1.5\times10^6\ \mathrm{kJ/s} =1.5\ \mathrm{GW}}

(b) 河水溫度增加量

河水流量為

100 m3/s100\ \mathrm{m^3/s}

取水的密度為 1000 kg/m31000\ \mathrm{kg/m^3},則質量流率為

m˙=100×1000=1.0×105 kg/s\dot m=100\times1000 =1.0\times10^5\ \mathrm{kg/s}

換算成莫耳流率:

n˙=m˙0.018=1.0×1050.018=5.56×106 mol/s\dot n=\frac{\dot m}{0.018} =\frac{1.0\times10^5}{0.018} =5.56\times10^6\ \mathrm{mol/s}

假設廢熱全部由河水吸收,且水的莫耳熱容量為

Cp=4.2 kJ/(mol⋅K)C_p=4.2\ \mathrm{kJ/(mol\cdot K)}

由

Q˙waste=n˙CpΔT\dot Q_{\mathrm{waste}}=\dot n C_p\Delta T

得

ΔT=1.5×106(5.56×106)(4.2)\Delta T =\frac{1.5\times10^6} {(5.56\times10^6)(4.2)}
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第 4 題

  1. The density of ice is 917 kg/m³ and a phase diagram of water is shown in Figure 2.
    (a) Use the Clausius-Clapeyron relation to explain why the slope of the phase boundary between water
    and ice is negative. (8%)
    (b) How much pressure would you have to put on an ice cube to make it melt at -1°C? (8%)

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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念

本題考查冰—水相平衡的 Clausius–Clapeyron 關係:

dPdT=ΔSΔV=LfTΔv\frac{dP}{dT}=\frac{\Delta S}{\Delta V} =\frac{L_f}{T\Delta v}

其中:

  • LfL_f:冰融化的潛熱,約為 3.335×105 J/kg3.335\times10^5\ \mathrm{J/kg}
  • TT:絕對溫度
  • Δv=v水−v冰\Delta v=v_{\text{水}}-v_{\text{冰}}
  • v=1/ρv=1/\rho

(a) 水與冰相界線斜率為負的原因

冰融化成水時,熵增加,因此:

ΔS=LfT>0\Delta S=\frac{L_f}{T}>0

但水的密度約為 1000 kg/m31000\ \mathrm{kg/m^3},冰的密度為 917 kg/m3917\ \mathrm{kg/m^3},所以冰融化後體積反而減少:

v水=11000=1.000×10−3 m3/kgv_{\text{水}}=\frac{1}{1000} =1.000\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{m^3/kg} v冰=1917=1.0905×10−3 m3/kgv_{\text{冰}}=\frac{1}{917} =1.0905\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{m^3/kg}

因此:

Δv=v水−v冰<0\Delta v=v_{\text{水}}-v_{\text{冰}}<0

代入 Clausius–Clapeyron 關係:

dPdT=ΔSΔV<0\frac{dP}{dT}=\frac{\Delta S}{\Delta V}<0

故水與冰的相界線斜率為負。物理意義是:增加壓力會促使體積較小的液態水形成,使冰的熔點下降。


(b) 使冰在 −1∘C-1^\circ\mathrm{C} 融化所需壓力

在 0∘C0^\circ\mathrm{C} 附近,取:

T=273.15 KT=273.15\ \mathrm{K}

冰融化時的比體積變化為:

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