113 年 國立臺灣大學生命科學研究所《專業英文(H)》
第 1 題20 分
Please fill each blank (i-x) in the above article (Ancient DNA) with the most appropriate word listed below (a to o) (2 points for each blank; 20 points in total)
a. ancestry
b. archaeologists
c. evolutionary
d. variants
e. adapted
f. evolved
g. skeletons
h. traits
i. overactive
j. family
k. sequenced
l. characteristics
m. trace
n. migration
o. anatomically
i. ____
ii. ____
iii. ____
iv. ____
v. ____
vi. ____
vii. ____
viii. ____
ix. ____
x. ____
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本題為克漏字題,旨在測試考生對閱讀測驗文章的理解程度,特別是對於詞彙的選擇以及上下文的判斷能力。考生需要根據文章的語意和文法,從提供的選項中選出最適合填入空格的單字。
題組共用題幹:
More than 1,600 ancient genomes have helped to trace the roots of a host of genetic i found in modern Europeans. The genomes suggest that many ii , including a heightened risk for multiple sclerosis were carried to Europe by people who migrated to the continent in three distinct waves starting around 45,000 years ago. Evidence suggested that some of the regional variation in certain iii was caused by differences in migrants' dispersal patterns. That contradicts the idea that genetic differences arose mainly as people iv to conditions in specific locations in Europe. A recently published study provides unprecedented detail on how ancient ancestry can influence disease risk to this day.
Europe was settled by v modern humans in three main waves: hunter-gatherers reached Europe from Asia around 45,000 years ago; farmers arrived from the Middle East 11,000 years ago; and pastoralists - animal herders came from the steppes of western Asia and eastern Europe 5,000 years ago. Historians and vi had assumed that these groups mixed with one another throughout the continent, and that populations in particular places vii distinct viii in response to their local environments. But when geneticists began investigating the ancient-human genomes, they found that that wasn't the full story. The researchers collected and sequenced DNA from 317 ancient ix found in Europe, most of which were between 3,000 and 11,000 years old. They then combined these sequences with existing genomic data from more than 1,300 other ancient Eurasians. By comparing the remains' genetic markers, ages and burial locations, the scientists were able to draw a European x tree and migration map that revealed how genomic characteristics in a specific location changed as populations moved over time. It showed, for instance, that the steppe pastoralists mainly went to the more northern parts of Europe, whereas the Middle Eastern farmers went to the south and west. The dispersal patterns mean that many modern Europeans carry some genetic ancestry from all three population waves, but the relative amount of each varies depending on the location.
第 2 題2 分
According to the article, which of the following countries' citizens are most likely at high risk of developing diabetes? (2 points)
(A) Spain
(B) Italy
(C) Greece
(D) Sweden
(E) Germany
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本題考查對文章內容的理解,特別是關於糖尿病風險的敘述。
文章中提到:「And those with the most hunter-gatherer ancestry, commonly found in northeastern Europe, have ix that put them at higher risk of dia
第 3 題2 分
About how many years ago did the most ancient modern human reach Europe? (2 points)
(A) 100,000
(B) 45,000
(C) 11,000
(D) 5,000
(E) 2,000
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本題考查對文章內容的理解,關於最早的現代人類抵達歐洲的時間。
文章中明確提到:「Europe was settled by v modern humans in three main waves: hunter-gatherers reached Europe from Asia around 45,000 years ago; farmers arrived from the Midd
第 4 題2 分
Which system is damaged in patients suffering from multiple sclerosis? (2 points)
(A) immune
(B) circulatory
(C) nervous
(D) muscular
(E) digestive
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本題考查對文章內容的理解,關於多發性硬化症 (multiple sclerosis) 的病因。
第 5 題2 分
Which of the following statements is true regarding the research strategies scientists used in the study? (2 points)
(A) Most ancient human DNAs sequenced for this study are no more than 11,000 years old.
(B) More than 1,500 ancient human DNAs were collected and sequenced by scientists for this study.
(C) Only ancient human genomes were analyzed in this study.
(D) Ancient human DNAs were extracted from the hair of the samples.
(E) The scientists only compared the human genome data sequenced for this study.
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本題考查對文章研究策略的理解。需要仔細閱讀文章,找出關於研究方法和樣本的敘述。
文章中提到:「The researchers collected and sequenced DNA from 317 ancient skeletons found in Europe, most of which were between 3,000 and 11,000 years old. They then combined these sequences with existing genomic data from more than 1,300 other ancient Eurasians.」
分析選項:
(A) 「Most ancient human DNAs sequenced for this study are no more than 11,000 years old.」文章提到 317 個樣本「most of which were between 3,000 and 11,000 years old」,這與選項說法相符。
(B) 文章提到「More than 1,600 ancient genomes have helped to trace the roots...」,但這是指總共幫助追溯的基因組數量,而非本次研究收集和定序的數量。本次研究實際收集的是 317 個骨骼 DNA,並結合了「more than 1,300 other ancient Eurasians」的現有數據。
第 6 題2 分
Which of the following statements is not true about modern Europeans? (2 points)
(A) Three main waves of ancient humans moved from Asia to Europe.
(B) The earliest ancient modern humans who arrived in Europe were hunters.
(C) Farmers who grew plants settled in Europe earlier than those who bred and cared for animals.
(D) Northern Europeans are taller than Southern Europeans due to their different ancestors.
(E) The trait associated to multiple sclerosis did not bring any benefits to ancient humans settled to northern Europe.
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本題考查對文章內容的理解,找出關於現代歐洲人的「錯誤」陳述。
文章中提到:
(A) 「Europe was settled by v modern humans in three main waves: hunter-gatherers reached Europe from Asia around 45,000 years ago; farmers arrived from the Middle East 11,000 years ago; and pastoralists - animal herders came from the steppes of western Asia and eastern Europe 5,000 years ago.」——這支持了選項 (A) 的說法。
(B) 「hunter-gatherers reached Europe from Asia around 45,000 years ago」——這表明最早到達的現代人類是狩獵採集者,因此選項 (B) 是正確的。
(C) 「farmers arrived from the Middle East 11,000 years ago; and pastoralists - animal herders came from the steppes of western Asia and eastern Europe 5,000 years ago.」——農民(種植植物)於 11,000 年前抵達,牧民(飼養動物)於 5,000 年前抵達。因此,農民比牧民更早定居歐洲。選項 (C) 是正確的。
第 7 題5 分
Based on the article, please discuss how the distribution pattern of multiple sclerosis has developed in Europeans. (5 points)
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核心觀念
本題考查多發性硬化症(multiple sclerosis, MS)在歐洲人群中的地理分布與流行病學變化,重點包括:
- 緯度梯度(latitudinal gradient):傳統上,MS 盛行率由歐洲南部向北部增加,北歐與西北歐較高,南歐較低。
- 疾病分布的歷史變化:MS 並非固定集中於某一地區,其分布範圍與盛行率會隨時間改變。
- 遺傳與環境交互作用:歐洲人具有較高的遺傳易感性,但實際發病仍受日照、維生素 D、感染、生活方式與移民背景等環境因素影響。
- 早期生活環境的重要性:個體在兒童期或青春期所處的環境,對成年後 MS 風險具有重要影響。
解題方法
題目要求根據文章「說明分布模式如何發展」,因此回答應採取時間變化加上地理方向的方式:
- 先指出傳統的歐洲分布:北部高、南部低。
- 再說明這種南北緯度梯度並非絕對固定,隨著醫療診斷進步、生活環境改變與人口移動,MS 已在歐洲不同地區被更廣泛辨識,部分地區的盛行率也逐漸上升。
- 最後補充造成分布差異的原因,指出遺傳背景與環境暴露共同作用,不能單純歸因於緯度。
分布模式的發展
1. 傳統的南北緯度梯度
MS 在歐洲最典型的分布模式,是由南向北逐漸增加。北歐、西北歐及英國、愛爾蘭等地的盛行率通常較高;南歐與地中海沿岸地區則相對較低。
這種現象被稱為緯度梯度,一般解釋為較高緯度地區日照較少,可能造成維生素 D 缺乏,進而影響免疫調節並增加 MS 風險。
2. 分布範圍逐漸擴大,南歐病例增加
隨著時間發展,MS 不再被視為只集中於北歐的疾病。南歐地區的病例辨識率與盛行率逐漸提高,南北差距在部分研究中呈現縮小趨勢。
這項變化可能與下列因素有關:
- 神經學診斷技術與磁共振影像進步;
- 醫師對 MS 的認識提高;
- 病例登錄與流行病學調查更完整;
- 人口老化使患者存活時間延長;
- 生活方式、飲食、感染暴露與日照習慣改變。
第 8 題20 分
Please fill each blank (i-x) in the above article (Monkey cloning) with the most appropriate word listed below (a to o) (2 points for each blank; 20 points in total)
a. nucleus
b. primates
f. patterns
g. implanted
k. achieved
l. epigenetic
m. placenta
n. surrogate
o. replacement
i. ____
ii. ____
iii. ____
iv. ____
v. ____
vi. ____
vii. ____
viii. ____
ix. ____
x. ____
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核心觀念
本題是「文章脈絡+生物科技術語」的克漏字,必須依據每個空格前後的完整句子判斷詞性、固定搭配與語意。題幹目前只提供空格編號與部分選項,未提供所稱的「above article」,因此無法確定各單字應填入哪一格。
資訊缺漏
目前可見的選項只有 9 個:
nucleus:細胞核primates:靈長類patterns:模式implanted:被植入achieved:達成、實現epigenetic:表觀遺傳的placenta:胎盤surrogate:代理孕母replacement:替換
但題目共有 10 個空格,且選項標示從 a 到 o,中間缺少 c–e 與 h–j 等選項。缺少完整文章與其餘選項時,無法依文法與語意建立唯一配對,也不能據此定案十個答案。
解題技巧
此類題目應依下列線索判斷:
第 9 題2 分
What kind of animal is the first cloned vertebrate? (2 points)
(A) a rhesus monkey
(B) a sheep
(C) a long-tailed macaque
(D) a dog
(E) a goat
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本題考查對文章內容的理解,關於第一隻複製的脊椎動物。
文章中提到:「It was i using a slightly different approach to the conventional cloning technique used to clone Dolly the sheep and other mammals, including long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis), which were the first ii to be cloned.」
這裡提到長尾獼猴是「first ii to be cloned」,其中 ii 填入 b. primates。
這句話表示長尾獼猴是「第一批被複製的靈長類動物」。
然而,問題問的是「第一隻複製的脊椎動物」。
文章接著說:「For the first time, a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) cloned in the laboratory has lived into adulthood surviving for almost three years so far. This work, published in 2024, marked the first successful cloning of the species.」
這段話強調的是「第一次成功複製了獼猴並讓其存活成年」。
文章前面提到 Dolly the sheep,Dolly 是第一隻複製的哺乳動物,但不是第一隻複製的脊椎動物。
在複製技術發展史上,第一隻複製的脊椎動物是青蛙 (Xenopus laevis),但文章中並未提及。
文章中提到長尾獼猴是「first primates to be cloned」,而 Dolly sheep 是第一隻複製的哺乳動物。
而題目問的是「first cloned vertebrate」。
仔細閱讀文章:
「It was i using a slightly different approach to the conventional cloning technique used to clone Dolly the sheep and other mammals, including long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis), which were the first ii to be cloned.」
這裡的 ii 填 b. primates。
這句話的意思是,長尾獼猴是「第一批被複製的靈長類動物」。
文章並沒有明確說明哪一種動物是「第一隻複製的脊椎動物」。
但是,如果題目是根據文章內容來問,那麼文章中提到的動物有:rhesus monkey, sheep (Dolly), long-tailed macaque。
其中,Dolly sheep 是第一隻複製的哺乳動物。
長尾獼猴是第一批複製的靈長類動物。
第 10 題2 分
When was the first cloned monkey born, which survived into adulthood? (2 points)
(A) 1996
(B) 2000
(C) 2021
(D) 2022
(E) 2024
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本題考查對文章內容的理解,關於第一隻成功複製並存活成年的猴子誕生的時間。
文章中提到:「For the first time, a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) cloned in the laboratory has lived into adulthood _ surviving for almost three years so far. This work, published in 2024, marked the first successful cloning of the species.」
這段話指出,這項工作發表於 2024 年,標誌著獼猴的首次成功複製。
第 11 題2 分
During the "somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)" process, what is transferred into an enucleated egg? (2 points)
(A) a haploid sperm nucleus
(B) a haploid egg nucleus
(C) a diploid trophoblast nucleus
(D) a diploid zygote nucleus
(E) a diploid somatic nucleus
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本題考查對「體細胞核轉移」(somatic cell nuclear transfer, SCNT) 技術的理解。
文章中提到:「The standard cloning technique known as somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) _ where the nucleus of a body cell is transferred into an egg cell whose nucleus has been removed typically results in extremely low birth and survival rates for cloned embryos.」
第 12 題2 分
Which of the following structures is the placenta derived from? (two correct choices) (2 points)
(A) trophoblast
(B) inner cell mass
(C) york sac
(D) amnion
(E) endometrium
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核心觀念
胎盤(placenta)是胚胎與母體進行氣體交換、營養運輸、代謝物排出及內分泌作用的暫時性器官,具有「胎兒來源」與「母體來源」兩部分:
- 胎兒部分:主要由滋養層(trophoblast)及其相關的胚外組織形成,尤其是絨毛膜的絨毛區(chorion frondosum)。
- 母體部分:由子宮內膜在著床後特化形成的蛻膜基底部(decidua basalis)。
因此,本題考查的是「胎盤的胚胎來源與母體來源」。
解題方法
判斷胎盤來源時,分別檢查各構造是否直接參與:
- 胚胎端胎盤的形成;
- 母體端胎盤的形成。
滋養層會分化為細胞滋養層(cytotrophoblast)與合體滋養層(syncytiotrophoblast),並形成絨毛膜絨毛,構成胎盤的重要胎兒部分。
胚胎著床處的子宮內膜則會轉變為蛻膜,其中位於胚胎下方的蛻膜基底部形成胎盤的母體部分。
所以正確選項為:
選項分析
(A) trophoblast:正確
滋養層是囊胚最外層的細胞,負責胚胎著床,並形成絨毛膜的主要結構。滋養層進一步分化為:
- 細胞滋養層:具有細胞界線,可增生並形成新的滋養層細胞。
- 合體滋養層:侵入母體子宮內膜,形成與母體血液接觸的重要介面。
胎盤的胎兒部分主要源自滋養層及其相關的胚外組織,因此此選項正確。
(B) inner cell mass:錯誤
第 13 題2 分
What potential defects lead to a lower survival rate of cloned embryos than in vitro fertilization embryos? (three correct choices) (2 points)
(A) DNA sequence change in SCNT embryos
(B) altered DNA methylation pattern in SCNT embryos
(C) development defect in early SCNT embryos
(D) thicker trophoblast in SCNT embryos
(E) loss of asymmetric expression from maternal and paternal genomes in SCNT embryos
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核心觀念
本題考查體細胞核移植(somatic cell nuclear transfer, SCNT)胚胎相較於體外受精(in vitro fertilization, IVF)胚胎,為何具有較低的著床率、發育率與出生存活率。
SCNT 是將成體體細胞的細胞核移入去除細胞核的卵母細胞中,再由卵母細胞細胞質重新啟動胚胎發育。其主要困難不在於 DNA 序列本身,而在於:
- 體細胞核必須被重新編程為胚胎狀態。
- 原有的 DNA 甲基化與其他表觀遺傳標記必須正確重設。
- 胚胎早期發育基因必須依正常時序表現。
- 親本來源特異性的基因印記(genomic imprinting)必須維持。
因此,SCNT 胚胎常因表觀遺傳重編程不完全而發育異常。
解題方法
判斷每個選項是否屬於 SCNT 的典型缺陷,可依序檢查:
- 是否改變了胚胎的 DNA 鹼基序列?
- 是否造成表觀遺傳重編程異常?
- 是否影響胚胎早期發育?
- 是否破壞母源與父源基因的差異性表現?
SCNT 使用的是單一體細胞核,並沒有經過精子與卵子融合。因此,SCNT 胚胎的主要問題是「重編程與親本印記異常」,而不是 DNA 序列重新組合錯誤。
選項分析
(A) DNA sequence change in SCNT embryos
錯誤。
SCNT 是將體細胞的細胞核移入去核卵母細胞,胚胎的核 DNA 主要來自供核體細胞。正常情況下,核移植本身不會使 DNA 鹼基序列發生改變。
SCNT 的主要缺陷是既有體細胞核的基因表現狀態未被完全重設,例如 DNA 甲基化、組蛋白修飾與染色質結構異常。因此,本選項所述的「DNA 序列改變」不是造成 SCNT 胚胎存活率降低的典型原因。
(B) altered DNA methylation pattern in SCNT embryos
正確。
體細胞核原本具有與成體細胞功能相符的 DNA 甲基化模式。移入卵母細胞後,這些甲基化標記必須被大幅重設,才能恢復胚胎細胞的全能性。
若重編程不完全或錯誤,便會造成:
- 胚胎發育基因無法正常啟動;
- 不應表現的組織特異性基因持續被抑制;
- 胎盤與胚胎器官發育異常;
- 胚胎在著床前後死亡。
所以,DNA 甲基化模式改變是 SCNT 胚胎低存活率的重要原因。
(C) development defect in early SCNT embryos
正確。
第 14 題5 分
According to the article, what special process was adopted by the researchers leading to the success of cloning the first healthy monkey that survived to adulthood? (5 points)
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核心觀念
本題考查複製技術中的體細胞核移植(somatic cell nuclear transfer, SCNT)及其改良方法。
傳統 SCNT 是將供體體細胞的細胞核移入去核卵母細胞,再使其發育成胚胎。研究人員發現,複製胚胎常因滋養層細胞(trophoblast)發育異常,導致胎盤形成不良,胚胎因此難以存活至出生或成年。
解題方法
題幹問的是研究人員所採用的「特殊過程」,關鍵在於辨認文章描述的改良技術:
滋養層置換(trophoblast replacement, TR)。
其步驟如下:
- 先以 SCNT 製造複製胚胎。
- 從複製胚胎中保留含有複製遺傳物質的內細胞團(inner cell mass, ICM)。內細胞團將來發育成胚胎本體。
- 另以卵質內單精子注射(intracytoplasmic sperm injection, ICSI)製造正常胚胎。
- 移除正常胚胎原有的內細胞團,只留下較健康的囊胚腔與滋養層細胞。
- 將複製胚胎的內細胞團移入這個去除內細胞團的正常胚胎中。
如此一來,出生的個體仍由複製胚胎的內細胞團發育而成,核心遺傳物質來自體細胞供體;但胎盤主要由正常胚胎的滋養層細胞形成,因此改善了複製胚胎常見的胎盤異常。
第 15 題10 分
Translate the following article into Chinese. (10 points)
Rice paddies (稻田) play a dual role, protecting global food security and being a crucial source of methane (CH4) emissions. Flooded rice paddy fields emit CH4 to around 12% of global anthropogenic (人為的) CH4 emissions. Why does rice paddy emit such tremendous CH4 emissions? A simple answer is a group of microorganisms called "methanogens." In the anaerobic conditions of flooded rice paddies, methanogens thrive around rice roots, producing CH4 by utilizing root exudates (滲出物) as a food source, including organic acids and carbon compounds transported through rice stem channels. A higher-yield rice cultivar (品種) generally secretes higher amounts of root exudates, resulting in higher CH4 emissions in the field. It resembles chasing two rabbits that run in different directions in the yard.
To overcome such a fundamental problem, scientists focused on allocating (分配) photosynthesis production from carbon fixation. They hypothesized that a rice trait could allocate the sink and source tissues such as photosynthates into rice grain and secretion of root exudates. They developed 'Milany360' by introgressing (基因滲入) the loss of function GS3 allele in natural variation using a conventional breeding program. The GS3 gene exerts its influence on organ size through its Organ Size Regulation (OSR) domain, acting as a negative regulator. Through natural genetic variation, a loss of function in the GS3 allele showed a notable 16% reduction in CH4 emissions, coupled with a 6% increase in crop yield. This outcome of gs3 mutants highlights the potential for a dual benefit, akin to catching "two rabbits at once."
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本題為翻譯題,要求將一篇關於稻田甲烷排放及其解決方案的英文短文翻譯成中文。翻譯的重點在於準確傳達原文的科學概念、專業術語以及語氣。
原文分析與翻譯策略:
- 標題與主題: 文章探討稻田甲烷排放的雙重角色(糧食安全與溫室氣體排放),以及如何通過育種技術來降低甲烷排放並提高產量。
- 專業術語: 需準確翻譯如 "methanogens" (產甲烷菌), "anaerobic conditions" (厭氧條件), "root exudates" (根部滲出物), "photosynthesis production" (光合作用產物), "carbon fixation" (碳固定), "photosynthates" (光合產物), "introgression" (基因滲入), "allele" (等位基因), "Organ Size Regulation (OSR) domain" (器官大小調控域), "negative regulator" (負調控因子), "mutants" (突變體)。
- 句子結構與語氣: 保持科學論文的客觀、嚴謹語氣,並注意長句的拆解與重組,確保中文表達流暢自然。
- 比喻: 文章使用了兩個比喻:「chasing two rabbits」和「catching 'two rabbits at once'」,翻譯時需保留其意境。
逐段翻譯與詳解:
第一段:
- 原文: Rice paddies (稻田) play a dual role, protecting global food security and being a crucial source of methane (CH4) emissions. Flooded rice paddy fields emit CH4 to around 12% of global anthropogenic (人為的) CH4 emissions. Why does rice paddy emit such tremendous CH4 emissions? A simple answer is a group of microorganisms called "methanogens." In the anaerobic conditions of flooded rice paddies, methanogens thrive around rice roots, producing CH4 by utilizing root exudates (滲出物) as a food source, including organic acids and carbon compounds transported through rice stem channels. A higher-yield rice cultivar (品種) generally secretes higher amounts of root exudates, resulting in higher CH4 emissions in the field. It resembles chasing two rabbits that run in different directions in the yard.
- 翻譯:
稻田扮演著雙重角色,一方面保障全球糧食安全,另一方面卻是甲烷 (CH4) 排放的重要來源。淹水的稻田所排放的甲烷,約占全球人為甲烷排放總量的 12%。為何稻田會排放如此龐大的甲烷?簡單的答案是,一群被稱為「產甲烷菌」的微生物在作祟。在淹水的稻田厭氧環境下,產甲烷菌會在水稻根部周圍蓬勃生長,利用根部分泌物(包括通過水稻莖部運輸的有機酸和碳化合物)作為食物來源,進而產生甲烷。產量較高的水稻品種通常會分泌更多的根部分泌物,導致田間的甲烷排放量更高。這就像在院子裡同時追逐兩隻往不同方向奔跑的兔子。 - 詳解:
- "dual role" 譯為「雙重角色」。
- "protecting global food security" 譯為「保障全球糧食安全」。
- "crucial source" 譯為「重要來源」。
- "anthropogenic" 譯為「人為的」。
- "tremendous" 譯為「龐大的」。
- "methanogens" 譯為「產甲烷菌」。
- "anaerobic conditions" 譯為「厭氧環境」。
- "thrive" 譯為「蓬勃生長」。
- "root exudates" 譯為「根部分泌物」。
- "rice stem channels" 譯為「水稻莖部運輸」。
- "higher-yield rice cultivar" 譯為「產量較高的水稻品種」。
- "resembles chasing two rabbits that run in different directions in the yard" 譯為「就像在院子裡同時追逐兩隻往不同方向奔跑的兔子」。保留了原文的比喻。
第二段:
- 原文: To overcome such a fundamental problem, scientists focused on allocating (分配) photosynthesis production from carbon fixation. They hypothesized that a rice trait could allocate t
第 16 題10 分
Based on the figure, please write a short essay explaining the endosymbiont theory of the origins of mitochondria and chloroplasts in eukaryotic cells. Your writing should include all the terms and labels provided. (10%)
Figure Caption: (The figure shows a diagram illustrating the endosymbiont theory.)
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核心觀念
本題考查真核細胞中粒線體與葉綠體的起源,以及「內共生理論」(endosymbiont theory)。此理論認為,早期真核細胞吞入原本可獨立生活的細菌,細菌未被消化,反而與宿主細胞形成長期互利共生,最後演化成細胞器。
- 粒線體(mitochondria)源自好氧性 α-變形菌(aerobic alpha-proteobacterium)。
- 葉綠體(chloroplasts)源自可進行光合作用的藍綠菌(cyanobacterium)。
- 這些細菌先被祖先真核細胞吞噬,經由內共生形成粒線體與葉綠體。
- 粒線體負責有氧呼吸與 ATP 生成;葉綠體負責光合作用與有機物合成。
解題方法
依照圖示的演化順序書寫:
具有粒線體的真核細胞再吞入藍綠菌:
論述時須同時包括「吞噬作用」、「共生關係」、「演化結果」及支持內共生理論的細胞生物學證據。
參考作答內容
內共生理論主張,粒線體與葉綠體並非由真核細胞直接製造,而是由曾經獨立生活的細菌演化而來。早期祖先真核細胞吞入好氧性 α-變形菌,這些細菌未被宿主細胞消化,反而利用宿主提供的環境獲得保護,並以有氧呼吸替宿主製造更多 ATP。
第 17 題10 分
Based on the figure, please write a short essay explaining the alcohol fermentation process. Your writing should include all the terms and labels provided. (10%)
Figure Caption: (The figure shows a diagram illustrating the process of alcohol fermentation.)
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核心觀念
本題考查酒精發酵(alcohol fermentation)的代謝流程、場所、電子載體再生,以及厭氧環境下的能量產生方式。酒精發酵是酵母菌等生物在缺乏氧氣時,將葡萄糖分解成乙醇與二氧化碳的過程。
完整流程包含:
- 糖解作用(glycolysis):發生於細胞質(cytoplasm),一分子葡萄糖(glucose)先分解成兩分子丙酮酸(pyruvate),並產生少量 ATP 與 NADH。
- 丙酮酸脫羧:丙酮酸釋放二氧化碳(CO₂),形成乙醛(acetaldehyde)。
- 乙醛還原:NADH 將乙醛還原成乙醇(ethanol),自身則氧化回 NAD⁺。
- NAD⁺ 再生:再生的 NAD⁺ 回到糖解作用中,使糖解作用得以持續進行。
酒精發酵的總反應式為:
其中,ATP 的主要來源是糖解作用;酒精發酵本身的核心功能不是大量製造 ATP,而是再生 NAD⁺。
解題方法
作答時依照圖中的箭頭順序說明,切入點如下:
同時補上兩個重要標籤:
- 丙酮酸轉變為乙醛時釋放 CO₂。
- NADH 將乙醛還原為乙醇,並再生 NAD⁺。
因此,短文不能只寫「葡萄糖變成酒精」,還必須交代糖解作用、丙酮酸、乙醛、乙醇、二氧化碳、NADH 與 NAD⁺ 的關係,以及此過程在無氧條件下維持糖解作用的意義。
參考作答內容