112 年 國立中山大學經濟學系碩士班《個體經濟學》

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第 1 題5 分

Question 1 (5 points) Multiple-Choice Question
Consider a game of two players. Player 1 has two strategies, T and D, and player 2 has two strategies, L
and R. The payoff matrix is in Figure 1.

LR
Ta, bc, d
De, fg, h

Figure 1

Which of the followings is correct? (There may be more than one correct answer.)
(A) If c>ac > a, the strategy profile (T, L) cannot be a Nash equilibrium.
(B) If d>bd > b, the strategy profile (T, L) cannot be a Nash equilibrium.
(C) If g>ag > a and h>bh > b, the strategy profile (T, L) cannot be a Nash equilibrium.
(D) Consider the strategy profile (T, L). If the payoffs are such that player 1 wants to deviate from
playing T, and player 2 wants to deviate from playing L, then the strategy profile (D, R) must be a
Nash equilibrium.
(E) If c=e=gc = e = g and d=f=hd = f = h, then the strategy profile (D, R) is a Nash equilibrium.

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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念

納許均衡是指:在其他玩家策略固定時,沒有玩家能藉由單方面改變策略提高自己的報酬。此題的報酬順序為「玩家 1、玩家 2」。

在策略組合 (T,L)(T,L),檢查兩項偏離條件:

  • 玩家 1 改選 DD:比較 ee 與 aa。
  • 玩家 2 改選 RR:比較 dd 與 bb。

因此,(T,L)(T,L) 為納許均衡的條件是 a≥ea \geq e 且 b≥db \geq d。

在策略組合 (D,R)(D,R),檢查兩項偏離條件:

  • 玩家 1 改選 TT:比較 cc 與 gg。
  • 玩家 2 改選 LL:比較 ff 與 hh。

因此,(D,R)(D,R) 為納許均衡的條件是 g≥cg \geq c 且 h≥fh \geq f。

解題方法

逐一檢查每個選項提供的報酬比較,是否剛好涉及該策略組合下的單方面偏離。只有偏離後、且對應玩家自己的報酬,才能直接判斷該玩家是否有誘因改變策略。

選項分析

(A) 錯誤。 在 (T,L)(T,L),玩家 1 偏離至 DD 時比較的是 ee 與 aa。條件 c>ac>a 比較的是玩家 1 在選擇 TT、玩家 2 選擇 RR 時的報酬,不能判定玩家在 (T,L)(T,L) 是否願意偏離。

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第 2 題5 分

Question 2 (5 points) Multiple-Choice Question
In a second-hand car market, there are 100 high-quality cars and 100 low-quality cars that may be sold.
There are 200 potential buyers, and each potential buyer will buy at most one car. Each seller values a
high-quality car at 3000 dollars and a low-quality car at 1000 dollars. Each buyer values a high-quality
car at 3500 dollars and a low-quality car at 1500 dollars. Sellers know the quality of the cars that they
sell and have options of not selling their cars. Buyers cannot observe the quality of a car on the market.
However, buyers know correctly the ratio of high-quality car and low-quality car that are for sale.
Which of the followings is correct? (There may be more than one correct answer.)
(A) All the high-quality cars are sold.
(B) All the low-quality cars are sold.
(C) The estimated value of a car for sale from a buyer's perspective is 2500 dollars.
(D) The estimated value of a car for sale from a buyer's perspective is 1500 dollars.
(E) The price of a car sold on the market is at most 1500 dollars.

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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念:逆向選擇與市場均衡

這題考的是二手車市場的「檸檬問題」:賣方知道車子的品質,買方看不出個別車子的品質,只能依照市場上待售車輛的品質比例估算價值。

買方對待售車輛的平均估值為:

平均估值=高品質車數×3500+低品質車數×1500待售車總數\text{平均估值} = \frac{\text{高品質車數}\times 3500+\text{低品質車數}\times 1500} {\text{待售車總數}}

賣方只有在成交價格不低於自己對車子的估值時才願意出售:高品質車的保留價格是 3000 美元,低品質車是 1000 美元。

解題方法:先判斷哪些車會進入市場

若高、低品質車都待售,買方估值為:

100×3500+100×1500200=2500\frac{100\times3500+100\times1500}{200}=2500

但 2500 美元低於高品質車賣方的保留價格 3000 美元,因此高品質車賣方不願出售。高品質車退出市場後,待售車只剩低品質車,買方對車子的估值便降為 1500 美元。

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第 3 題10 分

Question 3
Consider a consumer with the budget m, and there are two goods, good 1 and good 2, that he/she can
consume. The consumption of good 1 is x1x_1, and the consumption of good 2 is x2x_2. The price of good 1 is
p1p_1, and the price of good 2 is p2p_2.

(A) (10 points) If this consumer's utility function is u(x1,x2)=x1+x2u(x_1, x_2) = x_1 + x_2, what are his/her demand
functions for each good? (We assume p1<p2p_1 < p_2 for this question.)

For the following questions (C) – (F), we assume that this consumer's utility function is u(x1,x2)=x1ax2bu(x_1, x_2) = x_1^a x_2^b, where a=12a = \frac{1}{2} and b=12b = \frac{1}{2}.
(C) (10 points) Suppose p1=2p_1 = 2, p2=3p_2 = 3, and m=10m = 10. What are his/her demand functions for each good?
(D) (10 points) Following question (C), if the price for good 1 is changed to p1=1p_1 = 1, what is the (Slutsky)
substitution effect?
(E) (5 points) Following questions (C) and (D), what is the income effect?
(F) (10 points) Following question (C), suppose the government imposes a quantity tax on good 1, so that
consuming x1x_1 requires paying a tax of tx1tx_1. Let t=1t = 1. What is the consumer's optimal consumption
bundle?

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這一題的完整詳解

本題考驗個體經濟學中的消費者理論,包含效用最大化問題、需求函數推導、史拉茨基替代效果與所得效果的計算,以及稅賦對消費選擇的影響。

核心觀念:
消費者在預算限制下,追求效用最大化。

基本模型:
最大化 u(x1,x2)u(x_1, x_2)
受限於 p1x1+p2x2≤mp_1 x_1 + p_2 x_2 \le m

Part (A): 劣等替代品 (Perfect Substitutes)

效用函數:u(x1,x2)=x1+x2u(x_1, x_2) = x_1 + x_2
預算限制:p1x1+p2x2=mp_1 x_1 + p_2 x_2 = m
假設:p1<p2p_1 < p_2

此效用函數代表兩種商品是完全替代品,邊際替代率 (MRS) 為常數:
MRS12=MU1MU2=∂u/∂x1∂u/∂x2=11=1MRS_{12} = \frac{MU_1}{MU_2} = \frac{\partial u / \partial x_1}{\partial u / \partial x_2} = \frac{1}{1} = 1

消費者會在兩種極端情況下做選擇:

  1. 購買商品 1: 如果商品 1 相對於商品 2 更便宜,消費者會將所有預算花在商品 1 上。
    比較相對價格與 MRS:若 p1p2<MRS12\frac{p_1}{p_2} < MRS_{12},即 p1p2<1\frac{p_1}{p_2} < 1 (或 p1<p2p_1 < p_2),則消費者認為商品 1 更划算,會選擇只購買商品 1。
    此時,需求函數為:
    x1=mp1x_1 = \frac{m}{p_1}
    x2=0x_2 = 0

  2. 購買商品 2: 如果商品 2 相對於商品 1 更便宜,消費者會將所有預算花在商品 2 上。
    比較相對價格與 MRS:若 p1p2>MRS12\frac{p_1}{p_2} > MRS_{12},即 p1p2>1\frac{p_1}{p_2} > 1 (或 p1>p2p_1 > p_2),則消費者認為商品 2 更划算,會選擇只購買商品 2。
    此時,需求函數為:
    x1=0x_1 = 0
    x2=mp2x_2 = \frac{m}{p_2}

  3. 兩者皆購買: 如果相對價格等於 MRS,即 p1p2=MRS12\frac{p_1}{p_2} = MRS_{12} (或 p1=p2p_1 = p_2),則消費者對這兩種商品沒有偏好差異,任何組合都能達到相同的效用。在這種情況下,預算線上的任何組合 (x1,x2)(x_1, x_2) 都是最佳選擇,只要 p1x1+p2x2=mp_1 x_1 + p_2 x_2 = m。

題目假設 p1<p2p_1 < p_2。
由於 p1<p2p_1 < p_2,且 MRS12=1MRS_{12} = 1,所以 p1p2<1=MRS12\frac{p_1}{p_2} < 1 = MRS_{12}。
這表示商品 1 相對於商品 2 是更划算的。消費者會將所有預算花費在商品 1 上。

因此,需求函數為:
x1∗(p1,p2,m)=mp1x_1^*(p_1, p_2, m) = \frac{m}{p_1}
x2∗(p1,p2,m)=0x_2^*(p_1, p_2, m) = 0

【答案】
需求函數為:x1=mp1x_1 = \frac{m}{p_1}, x2=0x_2 = 0。

Part (C): 柯布-道格拉斯效用函數 (Cobb-Douglas Utility Function)

效用函數:u(x1,x2)=x11/2x21/2u(x_1, x_2) = x_1^{1/2} x_2^{1/2}
預算限制:p1x1+p2x2=mp_1 x_1 + p_2 x_2 = m
參數:p1=2p_1 = 2, p2=3p_2 = 3, m=10m = 10

對於柯布-道格拉斯效用函數 u(x1,x2)=x1ax2bu(x_1, x_2) = x_1^a x_2^b,其需求函數為:
x1∗(p1,p2,m)=aa+bmp1x_1^*(p_1, p_2, m) = \frac{a}{a+b} \frac{m}{p_1}
x2∗(p1,p2,m)=ba+bmp2x_2^*(p_1, p_2, m) = \frac{b}{a+b} \frac{m}{p_2}

在此題中,a=1/2a = 1/2, b=1/2b = 1/2。所以 a+b=1a+b = 1。
x1∗(p1,p2,m)=1/21/2+1/2mp1=12mp1x_1^*(p_1, p_2, m) = \frac{1/2}{1/2+1/2} \frac{m}{p_1} = \frac{1}{2} \frac{m}{p_1}
x2∗(p1,p2,m)=1/21/2+1/2mp2=12mp2x_2^*(p_1, p_2, m) = \frac{1/2}{1/2+1/2} \frac{m}{p_2} = \frac{1}{2} \frac{m}{p_2}

將參數代入:
p1=2p_1 = 2, p2=3p_2 = 3, m=10m = 10
x1∗(2,3,10)=12102=12×5=2.5x_1^*(2, 3, 10) = \frac{1}{2} \frac{10}{2} = \frac{1}{2} \times 5 = 2.5
x2∗(2,3,10)=12103=106=53≈1.667x_2^*(2, 3, 10) = \frac{1}{2} \frac{10}{3} = \frac{10}{6} = \frac{5}{3} \approx 1.667

【答案】
需求函數為:x1=m2p1x_1 = \frac{m}{2p_1}, x2=m2p2x_2 = \frac{m}{2p_2}。

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第 4 題15 分

Question 4 (15 points)
Consider a monopoly firm that produces goods for two separate market, market 1 and market 2. Let the
quantity produced for market 1 be y1y_1 and the quantity produced for market 2 be y2y_2. The (inverse)
demand function for market 1 is p(y1)=2−y1p(y_1) = 2 - y_1, and the (inverse) demand function for market 2 is
p(y2)=3−y2p(y_2) = 3 - y_2. The cost function for production is c(y1,y2)=(y1+y2)2c(y_1, y_2) = (y_1 + y_2)^2. For this firm to maximize
the profit, what are the optimal productions of y1y_1 and y2y_2.

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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念

本題考查獨占廠商在兩個分離市場中的利潤極大化。由於兩市場的需求不同,但生產成本取決於總產量 y1+y2y_1+y_2,因此兩市場共用同一個邊際成本。

利潤函數為:

π(y1,y2)=p(y1)y1+p(y2)y2−c(y1,y2)\pi(y_1,y_2)=p(y_1)y_1+p(y_2)y_2-c(y_1,y_2)

各市場的邊際收益分別為:

MR1=ddy1[(2−y1)y1]=2−2y1MR_1=\frac{d}{dy_1}\left[(2-y_1)y_1\right]=2-2y_1 MR2=ddy2[(3−y2)y2]=3−2y2MR_2=\frac{d}{dy_2}\left[(3-y_2)y_2\right]=3-2y_2

總成本為:

c(y1,y2)=(y1+y2)2c(y_1,y_2)=(y_1+y_2)^2

因此,兩市場增加一單位產量所增加的邊際成本相同:

MC1=MC2=∂c∂y1=∂c∂y2=2(y1+y2)MC_1=MC_2=\frac{\partial c}{\partial y_1} =\frac{\partial c}{\partial y_2} =2(y_1+y_2)

利潤極大化的條件是各市場的邊際收益均等於共同的邊際成本:

MR1=MC,MR2=MCMR_1=MC,\qquad MR_2=MC

解題方法與計算

利潤函數可直接寫成:

π(y1,y2)=(2−y1)y1+(3−y2)y2−(y1+y2)2\pi(y_1,y_2) =(2-y_1)y_1+(3-y_2)y_2-(y_1+y_2)^2

分別對 y1y_1 與 y2y_2 微分。

對 y1y_1:

∂π∂y1=2−2y1−2(y1+y2)=0\frac{\partial \pi}{\partial y_1} =2-2y_1-2(y_1+y_2)=0

整理得:

4y1+2y2=24y_1+2y_2=2

亦即:

2y1+y2=1(1)2y_1+y_2=1 \tag{1}

對 y2y_2:

∂π∂y2=3−2y2−2(y1+y2)=0\frac{\partial \pi}{\partial y_2} =3-2y_2-2(y_1+y_2)=0

整理得:

2y1+4y2=3(2)2y_1+4y_2=3 \tag{2}

由式 (1)(1) 得:

y2=1−2y1y_2=1-2y_1

代入式 (2)(2):

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第 5 題10 分

Question 5
Consider a market where there are an incumbent firm, Firm 1, and a firm that considers entering the
market, Firm 2. Both firms produce the identical products.
Denote the amount that Firm 1 produces as y1y_1, and denote the amount that Firm 2 produces as y2y_2, if Firm
2 enters the market. The cost of production is zero for both firms. The (inverse) demand function of the
market is p(Y)=10−(y1+y2)p(Y) = 10 - (y_1 + y_2), where Y=y1+y2Y = y_1 + y_2 is the total market quantity. Firm 2 need
to spend a fixed cost E = 3 in order to enter the market.
Firm 2 first decides whether to enter, and Firm 1, after observing Firm 2's decision, chooses whether to
fight against Firm 2. If Firm 2 enters, both firms engage in quantity competition in the following way. If
Firm 2 enters and Firm 1 does not fight, both firms compete as in the Stackelberg model, where Firm 1
plays the leader and Firm 2 plays the follower. If Firm 2 enters and Firm 1 fights, Firm 1 produces y1=7y_1 = 7,
and Firm 2 produces a profit-maximizing amount as a response to Firm 1's production. If Firm 2 does not
enter the market, Firm 1 produces the profit-maximizing amount y1=y1∗y_1 = y_1^*. Figure 2 expresses
the game tree of above extensive-form game (without specifying the payoffs).

🖼️【此處有附圖,請對照原卷】

(A) (10 points) Suppose Firm 2 enters and Firm 1 chooses not to fight. Both firm compete as in the
Stackelberg model, where Firm 1 is the leader and Firm 2 is the follower. What are the profits for
both firms?

(B) (5 points) Suppose Firm 2 enters and Firm 1 chooses to fight and produces y1=y1=7y_1 = y_1 = 7. What are the
profits for both firms? (In this question, treat the fixed cost E = 3 as a sunk cost for Firm 2 and find
the optimal y2y_2, and then calculate the resulting profits for each firm.)

(C) (5 points) What is the Nash equilibrium of this game?

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這一題的完整詳解

本題考驗產業組織理論中的進入賽局(Entry Game)與動態賽局(Dynamic Game),包含史特克伯賽局(Stackelberg Game)、納許均衡(Nash Equilibrium)的應用,以及訊息不對稱下的策略選擇。

基本設定:

  • 廠商 1 (Firm 1):現存廠商(Incumbent)。
  • 廠商 2 (Firm 2):潛在進入者(Potential Entrant)。
  • 產品:同質性產品。
  • 成本:兩家廠商的生產成本均為零 (c(y1)=0c(y_1)=0, c(y2)=0c(y_2)=0)。
  • 市場需求:反向需求函數 p(Y)=10−Yp(Y) = 10 - Y,其中 Y=y1+y2Y = y_1 + y_2。
  • 進入成本:Firm 2 進入市場需支付固定成本 E=3E = 3。

賽局流程:

  1. Firm 2 決定是否進入市場 (Enter / No Entry)。
  2. 若 Firm 2 選擇進入 (Enter):
    • Firm 1 決定是否抵抗 (Fight / Not Fight)。
    • 若 Firm 1 不抵抗 (Not Fight):進入者 (Firm 2) 是追隨者,現存者 (Firm 1) 是領導者。此為史特克伯賽局。
    • 若 Firm 1 抵抗 (Fight):Firm 1 固定產量 y1=7y_1 = 7。Firm 2 則在此情況下,選擇利潤最大化的產量 y2y_2。
  3. 若 Firm 2 選擇不進入 (No Entry):Firm 1 單獨生產,並選擇利潤最大化的產量 y1∗y_1^*。

Part (A): Firm 1 Leader, Firm 2 Follower (Stackelberg Model)

此情況為 Firm 2 進入,Firm 1 不抵抗。

  • 廠商 1 是領導者 (Leader),決定 y1y_1 以最大化其利潤。
  • 廠商 2 是追隨者 (Follower),在觀察到 y1y_1 後,決定 y2y_2 以最大化其利潤。

步驟 1:找到追隨者 (Firm 2) 的反應函數 (Reaction Function)。
Firm 2 的利潤為 π2=p(Y)y2−c(y2)−E\pi_2 = p(Y) y_2 - c(y_2) - E (考慮進入成本 E)。
由於 c(y2)=0c(y_2) = 0,且 p(Y)=10−(y1+y2)p(Y) = 10 - (y_1 + y_2):
π2=(10−y1−y2)y2−3\pi_2 = (10 - y_1 - y_2) y_2 - 3
Firm 2 的目標是最大化 π2\pi_2 對於 y2y_2 的函數,將 y1y_1 視為固定。
∂π2∂y2=∂∂y2(10y2−y1y2−y22−3)\frac{\partial \pi_2}{\partial y_2} = \frac{\partial}{\partial y_2} (10y_2 - y_1 y_2 - y_2^2 - 3)
∂π2∂y2=10−y1−2y2\frac{\partial \pi_2}{\partial y_2} = 10 - y_1 - 2y_2
令一階導數為零:
10−y1−2y2=010 - y_1 - 2y_2 = 0
2y2=10−y12y_2 = 10 - y_1
y2R(y1)=10−y12y_2^R(y_1) = \frac{10 - y_1}{2} 這是 Firm 2 的反應函數。
注意,這個反應函數只在 π2>0\pi_2 > 0 時有意義,即 (10−y1)y2−3>0(10 - y_1) y_2 - 3 > 0。
代入 y2=(10−y1)/2y_2 = (10-y_1)/2: (10−y1)10−y12−3>0  ⟹  (10−y1)22>3  ⟹  (10−y1)2>6(10-y_1) \frac{10-y_1}{2} - 3 > 0 \implies \frac{(10-y_1)^2}{2} > 3 \implies (10-y_1)^2 > 6。
這意味著 10−y1>610-y_1 > \sqrt{6} (因為 y1<10y_1 < 10),所以 y1<10−6≈10−2.45=7.55y_1 < 10 - \sqrt{6} \approx 10 - 2.45 = 7.55。

步驟 2:找到領導者 (Firm 1) 的最佳產量。
Firm 1 知道 Firm 2 的反應函數 y2R(y1)y_2^R(y_1),因此將其代入自己的利潤函數。
Firm 1 的利潤為 π1=p(Y)y1−c(y1)\pi_1 = p(Y) y_1 - c(y_1)。
Y=y1+y2R(y1)=y1+10−y12=2y1+10−y12=10+y12Y = y_1 + y_2^R(y_1) = y_1 + \frac{10 - y_1}{2} = \frac{2y_1 + 10 - y_1}{2} = \frac{10 + y_1}{2}
π1=(10−Y)y1=(10−10+y12)y1=(20−10−y12)y1=(10−y12)y1=10y1−y122\pi_1 = (10 - Y) y_1 = (10 - \frac{10 + y_1}{2}) y_1 = (\frac{20 - 10 - y_1}{2}) y_1 = (\frac{10 - y_1}{2}) y_1 = \frac{10y_1 - y_1^2}{2}
Firm 1 的目標是最大化 π1\pi_1 對於 y1y_1 的函數。
dπ1dy1=10−2y12=5−y1\frac{d \pi_1}{dy_1} = \frac{10 - 2y_1}{2} = 5 - y_1
令一階導數為零:
5−y1=0  ⟹  y1=55 - y_1 = 0 \implies y_1 = 5。

步驟 3:計算兩家公司的產量和利潤。
Firm 1 的領導者產量:y1=5y_1 = 5。
Firm 2 的追隨者產量(根據 Firm 1 的產量):
y2=10−y12=10−52=52=2.5y_2 = \frac{10 - y_1}{2} = \frac{10 - 5}{2} = \frac{5}{2} = 2.5。
總產量:Y=y1+y2=5+2.5=7.5Y = y_1 + y_2 = 5 + 2.5 = 7.5。
市場價格:p=10−Y=10−7.5=2.5p = 10 - Y = 10 - 7.5 = 2.5。

Firm 1 的利潤:
π1=p×y1−c(y1)=2.5×5−0=12.5\pi_1 = p \times y_1 - c(y_1) = 2.5 \times 5 - 0 = 12.5。

Firm 2 的利潤:
π2=p×y2−c(y2)−E=2.5×2.5−0−3=6.25−3=3.25\pi_2 = p \times y_2 - c(y_2) - E = 2.5 \times 2.5 - 0 - 3 = 6.25 - 3 = 3.25。
請注意,此處計算的 y2y_2 是 Firm 2 的反應函數,它假設 Firm 2 能夠獲利。由於 π2=3.25>0\pi_2 = 3.25 > 0,所以 Firm 2 確實會進入。

【答案】
Firm 1 的利潤為 12.512.5,Firm 2 的利潤為 3.253.25。

Part (B): Firm 1 Fights, Firm 2 Responds

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