109 年 國立臺灣大學經濟學系碩士班《總體經濟學》

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第 1 題50 分

Consider the following two period general equilibrium model with a representative firm and representative household. The household owns the firm and receives profits from the firm as their income. The firm owns capital.

  1. The two period firm's problem:
    In the first period t, the firm starts from KtK_t units of capital to produce Yt=AtKt1/2=4Kt1/2Y_t = A_t K_t^{1/2} = 4 K_t^{1/2}, where AtA_t is productivity (assumes At=4A_t = 4 now). The output and capital are the same goods sold at prices ptp_t and pt+1p_{t+1} in period t and t+1. YtY_t can be used as consumption or investment. In the second period, t+1, the firm uses Kt+1=It+(1−d)KtK_{t+1} = I_t + (1-d)K_t and produces Yt+1=4Kt+11/2Y_{t+1} = 4 K_{t+1}^{1/2}. ItI_t is the firm's investment and dd is the capital depreciation rate. The nominal interest rate between t and t+1 is iti_t. Note that the real interest rate is (1+r)=ptpt+1(1+it)(1+r) = \frac{p_t}{p_{t+1}}(1+i_t).
    In the first period after production, the firm sells output to the household and determines investment that it carries to the next period. The profit at t is πt=ptYt−ptIt\pi_t = p_t Y_t - p_t I_t. At the next period, the firm produce and sell all its output and capital to the household as consumption. So the profit at t+1 is πt+1=pt+1Yt+1+pt+1(1−d)Kt+1\pi_{t+1} = p_{t+1} Y_{t+1} + p_{t+1}(1-d)K_{t+1}.
    a. By investing, the firm reduces its profit at t but increases Kt+1K_{t+1}. What is the formula of the gross return (payoff/cost) from capital at t? (5 points)
    b. What is the user cost of capital here? (5 points)
    c. Assume pt=pt+1=10p_t = p_{t+1} = 10, it=1/11i_t = 1/11, d=1/11d = 1/11, Kt=100K_t = 100. What is the desired optimal capital at t+1, Kt+1K_{t+1}? (5 points)
  2. The household's problem
    The household receives firms' profits as income in each period. The household maximizes his lifetime utility as:
    max⁡U(x1,x2)=ln⁡(Ct)+0.8ln⁡(Ct+1)\max U(x_1, x_2) = \ln(C_t) + 0.8 \ln(C_{t+1})
    Subject to his lifetime budget constraint,
    Ct+Ct+11+r=πt1+r+πt+1/pt+11+rC_t + \frac{C_{t+1}}{1+r} = \frac{\pi_t}{1+r} + \frac{\pi_{t+1}/p_{t+1}}{1+r}.
    Where rr is the real interest rate, and πtpt\frac{\pi_t}{p_t} is real income at t.
    a. What is the household's Euler equation? (5 points)
    b. What is the marginal propensity to consume today? (5 points)
  3. General Equilibrium
    a. Write down the market clearing conditions. (5 points)
    b. Now, assume Kt=4,d=1K_t = 4, d = 1, pt=pt+1=2,At=At+1=4p_t = p_{t+1} = 2, A_t = A_{t+1} = 4, the interest rate is unknown and needs to be determined in equilibrium. Calculate the general equilibrium values of CtC_t, Ct+1C_{t+1}, ItI_t, Kt+1K_{t+1}, rr. List clearly five equations associated with these 5 endogenous variables. (10 points)
    c. Following from b., Suppose now there is a productivity shock so that AtA_t increases from 4 to, but At+1A_{t+1} remains the same. What is the new equilibrium interest rate? Does it increase or decrease? (10 points)

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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念

本題整合兩期一般均衡模型中的三個核心觀念:

  1. 資本的邊際報酬與資本報酬率

    • 資本除了帶來下一期的邊際產出,也保留未折舊的資本價值。
    • 最適條件為:

    FK(Kt+1)+1−d=1+rF_K(K_{t+1})+1-d=1+r

    因此:

    FK(Kt+1)=r+dF_K(K_{t+1})=r+d

  2. 家庭的跨期消費選擇

    • 由 Euler equation 決定今天與明天的消費比例。
    • 偏好越重視未來,或實質利率越高,明日消費相對越多。
  3. 一般均衡市場清算

    • 每一期的商品供給必須等於商品需求。
    • 家庭的 Euler equation 與廠商的資本最適條件共同決定均衡利率。

一、廠商問題

生產函數為:

Yt=4Kt1/2Y_t=4K_t^{1/2}

因此資本的邊際產出為:

FK(K)=∂Y∂K=2K−1/2=2KF_K(K)=\frac{\partial Y}{\partial K} =2K^{-1/2} =\frac{2}{\sqrt K}

(1)a. 資本的毛報酬

增加一單位 Kt+1K_{t+1} 的資本,需要在本期增加一單位投資,因此本期成本為 ptp_t。

到了下一期,這一單位資本可帶來:

  1. 額外生產的邊際產出:FK(Kt+1)F_K(K_{t+1})
  2. 未折舊資本價值:1−d1-d

所以資本的實質毛報酬為:

FK(Kt+1)+(1−d)F_K(K_{t+1})+(1-d)

代入本題的生產函數:

資本毛報酬=2Kt+1+1−d\boxed{ \text{資本毛報酬} =\frac{2}{\sqrt{K_{t+1}}}+1-d }

廠商的最適投資條件,是資本毛報酬等於實質利率的毛報酬:

2Kt+1+1−d=1+r\frac{2}{\sqrt{K_{t+1}}}+1-d=1+r

因此:

2Kt+1=r+d\boxed{ \frac{2}{\sqrt{K_{t+1}}}=r+d }

(1)b. 資本的使用者成本

資本的使用者成本是持有一單位資本一期間所需承擔的成本。資本的成本來自:

  1. 資金的機會成本:rr
  2. 資本折舊:dd

因此,實質使用者成本為:

r+d\boxed{r+d}

廠商的資本最適條件也可寫成:

FK(Kt+1)=資本使用者成本F_K(K_{t+1})=\text{資本使用者成本}

即:

2Kt+1=r+d\boxed{ \frac{2}{\sqrt{K_{t+1}}}=r+d }

若以本期價格表示名目使用者成本,且一單位資本的價格為 ptp_t,則為:

pt(r+d)p_t(r+d)


(1)c. 最適資本存量

已知:

pt=pt+1=10p_t=p_{t+1}=10

it=111,d=111i_t=\frac{1}{11},\qquad d=\frac{1}{11}

實質利率為:

1+r=ptpt+1(1+it)=1(1+111)=12111+r=\frac{p_t}{p_{t+1}}(1+i_t) =1\left(1+\frac{1}{11}\right) =\frac{12}{11}

因此:

r=111r=\frac{1}{11}

由資本最適條件:

2Kt+1=r+d\frac{2}{\sqrt{K_{t+1}}}=r+d

代入 r=d=111r=d=\frac{1}{11}:

2Kt+1=111+111=211\frac{2}{\sqrt{K_{t+1}}} =\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{11} =\frac{2}{11}

所以:

Kt+1=11\sqrt{K_{t+1}}=11

Kt+1=121\boxed{K_{t+1}=121}

解題技巧

本小題不需要先求投資 ItI_t。直接使用:

FK(Kt+1)=r+dF_K(K_{t+1})=r+d

即可快速求出最適資本。由於生產函數為 4K4\sqrt K,其邊際產出為 2/K2/\sqrt K。


二、家庭問題

家庭效用函數為:

U(Ct,Ct+1)=ln⁡Ct+0.8ln⁡Ct+1U(C_t,C_{t+1}) =\ln C_t+0.8\ln C_{t+1}

跨期預算限制可整理為:

Ct+Ct+11+r=WC_t+\frac{C_{t+1}}{1+r}=W

其中 WW 代表家庭的終生財富現值。

(2)a. 家庭的 Euler equation

家庭的拉格朗日函數為:

L=ln⁡Ct+0.8ln⁡Ct+1+λ(W−Ct−Ct+11+r)\mathcal L =\ln C_t+0.8\ln C_{t+1} +\lambda\left(W-C_t-\frac{C_{t+1}}{1+r}\right)

對 CtC_t 微分:

1Ct−λ=0\frac{1}{C_t}-\lambda=0

因此:

λ=1Ct\lambda=\frac{1}{C_t}

對 Ct+1C_{t+1} 微分:

0.8Ct+1−λ1+r=0\frac{0.8}{C_{t+1}} -\frac{\lambda}{1+r}=0

代入 λ=1/Ct\lambda=1/C_t:

0.8Ct+1=1(1+r)Ct\frac{0.8}{C_{t+1}} =\frac{1}{(1+r)C_t}

整理得:

1Ct=0.8(1+r)Ct+1\boxed{ \frac{1}{C_t} =\frac{0.8(1+r)}{C_{t+1}} }

或寫成:

Ct+1=0.8(1+r)Ct\boxed{ C_{t+1}=0.8(1+r)C_t }

這就是家庭的 Euler equation。


(2)b. 今日消費的邊際消費傾向

由 Euler equation:

Ct+1=0.8(1+r)CtC_{t+1}=0.8(1+r)C_t

代回跨期預算限制:

Ct+0.8(1+r)Ct1+r=WC_t+\frac{0.8(1+r)C_t}{1+r}=W

因此:

Ct+0.8Ct=WC_t+0.8C_t=W

1.8Ct=W1.8C_t=W

所以:

Ct=11.8W=59WC_t=\frac{1}{1.8}W=\frac{5}{9}W

因此今日消費對終生財富的邊際消費傾向為:

MPCt=11+0.8=59\boxed{\text{MPC}_t=\frac{1}{1+0.8}=\frac{5}{9}}

約為:

0.556\boxed{0.556}

解題技巧

對數效用下,Euler equation 會直接導出固定的消費比例。由於未來效用權重為 0.80.8,家庭會將終生財富分配為:

  • 今日消費:1/(1+0.8)=5/91/(1+0.8)=5/9
  • 明日消費的折現現值:0.8/(1+0.8)=4/90.8/(1+0.8)=4/9

三、一般均衡

(3)a. 市場清算條件

第一期商品市場

第一期產出可用於消費或投資:

Ct+It=Yt\boxed{C_t+I_t=Y_t}

由生產函數:

Yt=AtKtY_t=A_t\sqrt{K_t}

所以:

Ct+It=AtKt\boxed{C_t+I_t=A_t\sqrt{K_t}}

資本累積條件

Kt+1=It+(1−d)Kt\boxed{ K_{t+1}=I_t+(1-d)K_t }

第二期商品市場

第二期的商品供給包括:

  1. 第二期生產量 Yt+1Y_{t+1}
  2. 未折舊資本 (1−d)Kt+1(1-d)K_{t+1}

因此:

Ct+1=Yt+1+(1−d)Kt+1\boxed{ C_{t+1}=Y_{t+1}+(1-d)K_{t+1} }

其中:

Yt+1=At+1Kt+1Y_{t+1}=A_{t+1}\sqrt{K_{t+1}}

家庭 Euler equation

Ct+1=0.8(1+r)Ct\boxed{ C_{t+1}=0.8(1+r)C_t }

廠商資本最適條件

At+12Kt+1=r+d\boxed{ \frac{A_{t+1}}{2\sqrt{K_{t+1}}}=r+d }

本題 At+1=4A_{t+1}=4,故:

2Kt+1=r+d\boxed{ \frac{2}{\sqrt{K_{t+1}}}=r+d }
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第 2 題25 分

[Labor and Government Policy] (25 points) Consider an one-period, production economy. There are infinite households and firms in the economy, and the mass of households and firms are both normalized to one.
The household's utility function is
u(c,l)=ln⁡c+ln⁡lu(c, l) = \ln c + \ln l,
where c is consumption, and l is leisure. A household can work to obtain wage income, and wage income is equal to the wage rate w times the working hours n. A household's endowment of time is normalized to 1, and thus its time constraint is
n+l=1n + l = 1.
Households also own shares of firms, and the dividend payment they receive from firms is π\pi.
There is a government. The government makes an expenditure g>0g > 0. The size of the expenditure is exogenously determined and does not bring any utility to the households. The expenditure is funded by a lump sum tax, τ\tau charged from households. The government's budget constraint is
g=τg = \tau,
and the household's budget constraint is
c=wn+π−τc = wn + \pi - \tau.
A firm takes working hours n as inputs, and its production function is
F(n)=AnF(n) = An,
where A is a technology parameter. A firm's profit comes from the revenue of selling output, F(n), minus the wage payment, wn. A firm maximizes its profit, and the profit is transferred to households as dividend payments, π\pi.
(a) (5 points) Write down the social planner's problem. Solve for the optimal working hours, n, and consumption, c, in the problem.
(b) (10 points) Now we consider the competitive equilibrium.
i. Compare the competitive equilibrium working hours, n, and consumption, c, with those in the social planner's problem.
ii. In an economy with a higher government's expenditure, g, will the working hours, n, consumption c, and wage rate, w, be higher, lower, or the same in the competitive equilibrium?

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這一題的完整詳解

這題主要在探討一個單期生產經濟體系中,社會福利最大化(社會規劃者問題)與市場機能(競爭性均衡)下的勞動供給與消費決策差異,以及政府財政政策(政府支出)對這些決策的影響。

(a) 社會規劃者問題

社會規劃者(Social Planner)的目標是最大化社會的總體福利,而社會福利在此模型中由代表性家庭的效用函數來衡量。社會規劃者會同時決定勞動供給 nn 和消費 cc,以最大化家庭的效用,同時滿足生產可能性曲線和時間約束。

家庭的效用函數為 u(c,l)=ln⁡c+ln⁡lu(c, l) = \ln c + \ln l。
時間約束為 n+l=1n + l = 1,因此休閒 l=1−nl = 1 - n。
將休閒代入效用函數,得到 u(c,n)=ln⁡c+ln⁡(1−n)u(c, n) = \ln c + \ln(1 - n)。

生產函數為 F(n)=AnF(n) = An。在一個封閉經濟體系中,且沒有資本的情況下,總產出即為家庭的消費 cc。因此,社會規劃者面臨的問題是:

max⁡c,nln⁡c+ln⁡(1−n)\max_{c, n} \ln c + \ln(1 - n)

受限於生產可能性:
c=Anc = An
且勞動供給的約束:
0≤n≤10 \le n \le 1

將生產約束 c=Anc = An 代入效用函數,得到社會規劃者的問題:

max⁡nln⁡(An)+ln⁡(1−n)\max_{n} \ln(An) + \ln(1 - n)

為了求解最佳的勞動供給 nn,我們對此函數對 nn 微分並令其等於零:

ddn[ln⁡(An)+ln⁡(1−n)]=0\frac{d}{dn} [\ln(An) + \ln(1 - n)] = 0
AAn+−11−n=0\frac{A}{An} + \frac{-1}{1 - n} = 0
1n−11−n=0\frac{1}{n} - \frac{1}{1 - n} = 0
1n=11−n\frac{1}{n} = \frac{1}{1 - n}
1−n=n1 - n = n
1=2n1 = 2n
n=12n = \frac{1}{2}

因此,社會規劃者決定的最適勞動供給為 n=12n = \frac{1}{2}。
對應的消費水準為:
c=An=A(12)=A2c = An = A \left(\frac{1}{2}\right) = \frac{A}{2}

【答案】
社會規劃者的問題為:
max⁡c,nln⁡c+ln⁡(1−n)\max_{c, n} \ln c + \ln(1 - n)
受限於 c=Anc = An 且 0≤n≤10 \le n \le 1。
最適勞動供給為 n=12n = \frac{1}{2},最適消費為 c=A2c = \frac{A}{2}。

(b) 競爭性均衡

在競爭性均衡下,家庭和廠商各自獨立地做出決策,市場機能(價格)會協調這些決策。

家庭的決策:
家庭的最大化問題為:
max⁡c,nln⁡c+ln⁡(1−n)\max_{c, n} \ln c + \ln(1 - n)
受限於家庭預算約束:
c=wn+π−τc = wn + \pi - \tau
其中 ww 是實質工資率,π\pi 是股息收入,τ\tau 是稅收。
政府的預算約束為 g=τg = \tau,因此 τ=g\tau = g。
家庭預算約束變為:
c=wn+π−gc = wn + \pi - g

家庭的邊際效用來自消費和休閒:
∂u∂c=1c\frac{\partial u}{\partial c} = \frac{1}{c}
∂u∂l=1l=11−n\frac{\partial u}{\partial l} = \frac{1}{l} = \frac{1}{1-n}

家庭在預算約束下的最大化問題,其拉格朗日函數為:
L=ln⁡c+ln⁡(1−n)+λ(c−wn−π+g)L = \ln c + \ln(1 - n) + \lambda(c - wn - \pi + g)

對 cc 微分並令其等於零:
∂L∂c=1c−λ=0  ⟹  λ=1c\frac{\partial L}{\partial c} = \frac{1}{c} - \lambda = 0 \implies \lambda = \frac{1}{c}

對 nn 微分並令其等於零:
∂L∂n=−11−n⋅(−1)+λ(−w)=0\frac{\partial L}{\partial n} = \frac{-1}{1 - n} \cdot (-1) + \lambda(-w) = 0
11−n−λw=0\frac{1}{1 - n} - \lambda w = 0
11−n=λw\frac{1}{1 - n} = \lambda w

將 λ=1c\lambda = \frac{1}{c} 代入上式:
11−n=1cw\frac{1}{1 - n} = \frac{1}{c} w
c1−n=w\frac{c}{1 - n} = w
1c=w1−n\frac{1}{c} = \frac{w}{1 - n}

這表示邊際替代率 MRS(消費對休閒的邊際替代率)等於實質工資率:
MRSc,l=∂u/∂l∂u/∂c=1/(1−n)1/c=c1−n\text{MRS}_{c,l} = \frac{\partial u / \partial l}{\partial u / \partial c} = \frac{1/(1-n)}{1/c} = \frac{c}{1-n}

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第 2(c) 題10 分

Now suppose that the government makes no expenditure, so g=0g = 0. However, the government provides a proportional subsidy to households based on their wage income. That is, let the subsidy rate be t≥0t \ge 0, then if a household's wage income is wnwn, the government pays twntwn to the households. Moreover, the subsidy is funded by a lump sum tax charged from households, τ\tau. Thus, let nˉ\bar{n} denote the average labor supply among households, and let t denote the government's transfer to a household, then
τ=twn\tau = twn.
The households' budget constraint becomes
c=(1+t)wn+π−τc = (1+t)wn + \pi - \tau.
i. Are the consumption and working hours in the competitive equilibrium higher in an economy with a proportional subsidy (t>0t > 0) or without a proportional subsidy (t=0t = 0)? Or the proportional subsidy tt has no impact on the households' decision?
ii. Is social welfare in the competitive equilibrium higher in an economy with a proportional subsidy (t>0t > 0) or without a proportional subsidy (t=0t = 0)? Or the proportional subsidy tt has no impact on the social welfare? Explain your answer.

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這一題的完整詳解

這題主要考驗對總體經濟模型中,政府提供勞動所得比例補貼(proportional subsidy)對個人決策(消費與勞動供給)以及社會福利的影響。關鍵在於理解補貼如何改變勞動的實質報酬,以及此改變如何透過預算限制影響消費與勞動的權衡。

解題過程

本題探討政府提供基於勞動所得的比例補貼,並由總額稅(lump sum tax)來支應。我們需要分析此政策對個人消費、勞動供給以及社會福利的影響。

模型設定

  • 政府支出 g=0g = 0。
  • 勞動所得比例補貼率為 t≥0t \ge 0。若個人勞動所得為 wnwn,則政府給予 twntwn 的補貼。
  • 補貼由總額稅 τ\tau 支應,且 τ\tau 等於政府支付給所有家庭的總補貼額。假設平均勞動供給為 nˉ\bar{n},則每個家庭被課徵的總額稅為 τ=twn\tau = twn。這裡題目給的 τ=twn\tau = twn 似乎是指對「平均勞動供給」的補貼總額,但課徵給「每個家庭」的總額稅應該是與該家庭的勞動所得相關。然而,題目後續給出的家庭預算限制式為 c=(1+t)wn+π−τc = (1+t)wn + \pi - \tau,且 τ=twn\tau = twn。這表示政府課徵的總額稅 τ\tau 直接與該家庭的勞動所得 wnwn 成正比,即 τ=twn\tau = twn。這與「lump sum tax」的定義(不依賴於個人所得或消費的稅)有所不同,但我們必須依照題目給定的預算限制式進行分析。
  • 家庭的效用函數為 U(c,l)=ln⁡c+ln⁡lU(c, l) = \ln c + \ln l。
  • 時間限制為 n+l=1n + l = 1,其中 nn 為工作時數,ll 為閒暇。
  • 家庭總收入來源為勞動所得 wnwn 和企業的利潤 π\pi。
  • 家庭的預算限制式為:c=wn+π−τc = wn + \pi - \tau。
  • 根據題目設定,補貼為 twntwn,總額稅為 τ=twn\tau = twn。因此,家庭的預算限制式簡化為:
    c=wn+π−twnc = wn + \pi - twn
    c=(1−t)wn+πc = (1-t)wn + \pi

競爭性均衡下的個人決策

在競爭性均衡下,工資率 ww 由勞動市場決定,利潤 π\pi 是固定的(假設為已知或由其他市場決定)。家庭的決策是在給定的 ww 和 π\pi 下,最大化其效用。

家庭最大化效用:max⁡n,l,cln⁡c+ln⁡l\max_{n, l, c} \ln c + \ln l
受限於:

  1. n+l=1n + l = 1
  2. c=(1−t)wn+πc = (1-t)wn + \pi

首先,將 l=1−nl = 1-n 代入效用函數:
U(c,n)=ln⁡c+ln⁡(1−n)U(c, n) = \ln c + \ln(1-n)

接著,將預算限制式代入:
U(n)=ln⁡((1−t)wn+π)+ln⁡(1−n)U(n) = \ln((1-t)wn + \pi) + \ln(1-n)

為了找到最佳的勞動時數 nn,我們對 U(n)U(n) 對 nn 微分並令其等於零:
dUdn=(1−t)w(1−t)wn+π−11−n=0\frac{dU}{dn} = \frac{(1-t)w}{(1-t)wn + \pi} - \frac{1}{1-n} = 0
(1−t)w(1−t)wn+π=11−n\frac{(1-t)w}{(1-t)wn + \pi} = \frac{1}{1-n}
(1−t)w(1−n)=(1−t)wn+π(1-t)w(1-n) = (1-t)wn + \pi
(1−t)w−(1−t)wn=(1−t)wn+π(1-t)w - (1-t)wn = (1-t)wn + \pi
(1−t)w−π=2(1−t)wn(1-t)w - \pi = 2(1-t)wn
n=(1−t)w−π2(1−t)wn = \frac{(1-t)w - \pi}{2(1-t)w}
n=12(1−π(1−t)w)n = \frac{1}{2} \left( 1 - \frac{\pi}{(1-t)w} \right)

這個式子表示在有補貼的情況下,最佳勞動時數 nn 取決於補貼率 tt、工資率 ww 和利潤 π\pi。

i. 消費與工作時數的比較

我們需要比較 t>0t > 0 (有補貼) 與 t=0t = 0 (無補貼) 的情況。

  • 工作時數 (nn):
    當 t=0t = 0 時,工作時數為:
    nt=0=12(1−πw)n_{t=0} = \frac{1}{2} \left( 1 - \frac{\pi}{w} \right)
    當 t>0t > 0 時,工作時數為:
    nt>0=12(1−π(1−t)w)n_{t>0} = \frac{1}{2} \left( 1 - \frac{\pi}{(1-t)w} \right)
    由於 t≥0t \ge 0,則 (1−t)≤1(1-t) \le 1。
    如果 π>0\pi > 0 且 w>0w > 0,則 π(1−t)w≥πw\frac{\pi}{(1-t)w} \ge \frac{\pi}{w}。
    因此,1−π(1−t)w≤1−πw1 - \frac{\pi}{(1-t)w} \le 1 - \frac{\pi}{w}。
    所以,nt>0≤nt=0n_{t>0} \le n_{t=0}。
    這表示,在有比例補貼的情況下,家庭的勞動供給(工作時數)會減少。這是因為補貼雖然增加了稅後可支配的勞動所得,但同時政府課徵的總額稅也與勞動所得成正比,這實際上降低了勞動的淨報酬。更精確地說,預算限制式 c=(1−t)wn+πc = (1-t)wn + \pi 表明,每增加一單位的勞動,消費僅增加 (1−t)w(1-t)w。當 t>0t>0 時,(1−t)w<w(1-t)w < w,表示勞動的邊際實質報酬下降,因此家庭會選擇減少工作時數。

  • 消費 (cc):
    消費由預算限制式決定:c=(1−t)wn+πc = (1-t)wn + \pi。
    我們知道 nt>0≤nt=0n_{t>0} \le n_{t=0}。
    比較 ct>0c_{t>0} 和 ct=0c_{t=0}:
    ct>0=(1−t)wnt>0+πc_{t>0} = (1-t)w n_{t>0} + \pi
    ct=0=wnt=0+πc_{t=0} = w n_{t=0} + \pi
    將 nt>0n_{t>0} 和 nt=0n_{t=0} 的表達式代入:
    ct>0=(1−t)w[12(1−π(1−t)w)]+πc_{t>0} = (1-t)w \left[ \frac{1}{2} \left( 1 - \frac{\pi}{(1-t)w} \right) \right] + \pi
    ct>0=12w(1−t)−12w(1−t)π(1−t)w+πc_{t>0} = \frac{1}{2} w (1-t) - \frac{1}{2} w (1-t) \frac{\pi}{(1-t)w} + \pi
    ct>0=12w(1−t)−12π+πc_{t>0} = \frac{1}{2} w (1-t) - \frac{1}{2} \pi + \pi
    ct>0=12w(1−t)+12πc_{t>0} = \frac{1}{2} w (1-t) + \frac{1}{2} \pi

    ct=0=w[12(1−πw)]+πc_{t=0} = w \left[ \frac{1}{2} \left( 1 - \frac{\pi}{w} \right) \right] + \pi
    ct=0=12w−12wπw+πc_{t=0} = \frac{1}{2} w - \frac{1}{2} w \frac{\pi}{w} + \pi
    ct=0=12w−12π+πc_{t=0} = \frac{1}{2} w - \frac{1}{2} \pi + \pi
    ct=0=12w+12πc_{t=0} = \frac{1}{2} w + \frac{1}{2} \pi

    比較 ct>0c_{t>0} 和 ct=0c_{t=0}:
    ct>0=12w−12wt+12πc_{t>0} = \frac{1}{2} w - \frac{1}{2} wt + \frac{1}{2} \pi
    ct=0=12w+12πc_{t=0} = \frac{1}{2} w + \frac{1}{2} \pi
    由於 t≥0t \ge 0 且 w>0w > 0,所以 −12wt≤0-\frac{1}{2} wt \le 0。
    因此,ct>0≤ct=0c_{t>0} \le c_{t=0}。
    這表示,在有比例補貼的情況下,家庭的消費也會減少。

    結論:比例補貼 t>0t > 0 會使得競爭性均衡下的消費和工作時數都比沒有補貼 (t=0t=0) 時來得低。

ii. 社會福利的比較

社會福利通常用代表性家庭的效用來衡量。我們比較 t>0t > 0 和 t=0t = 0 時的效用水平。

效用函數為 U(c,l)=ln⁡c+ln⁡lU(c, l) = \ln c + \ln l。
由於 l=1−nl = 1-n,所以 U(c,n)=ln⁡c+ln⁡(1−n)U(c, n) = \ln c + \ln(1-n)。

  • 情況 t=0t = 0:
    工作時數 nt=0=12(1−πw)n_{t=0} = \frac{1}{2} \left( 1 - \frac{\pi}{w} \right)。
    閒暇 lt=0=1−nt=0=1−12(1−πw)=12(1+πw)l_{t=0} = 1 - n_{t=0} = 1 - \frac{1}{2} \left( 1 - \frac{\pi}{w} \right) = \frac{1}{2} \left( 1 + \frac{\pi}{w} \right)。
    消費 ct=0=12w+12πc_{t=0} = \frac{1}{2} w + \frac{1}{2} \pi。
    此時的效用為:
    Ut=0=ln⁡(12w+12π)+ln⁡(12+12πw)U_{t=0} = \ln\left(\frac{1}{2} w + \frac{1}{2} \pi\right) + \ln\left(\frac{1}{2} + \frac{1}{2}\frac{\pi}{w}\right)
    Ut=0=ln⁡(w+π2)+ln⁡(w+π2w)U_{t=0} = \ln\left(\frac{w+\pi}{2}\right) + \ln\left(\frac{w+\pi}{2w}\right)
    Ut=0=ln⁡((w+π)24w)U_{t=0} = \ln\left(\frac{(w+\pi)^2}{4w}\right)

  • 情況 t>0t > 0:
    工作時數 nt>0=12(1−π(1−t)w)n_{t>0} = \frac{1}{2} \left( 1 - \frac{\pi}{(1-t)w} \right)。
    閒暇 lt>0=1−nt>0=1−12(1−π(1−t)w)=12(1+π(1−t)w)l_{t>0} = 1 - n_{t>0} = 1 - \frac{1}{2} \left( 1 - \frac{\pi}{(1-t)w} \right) = \frac{1}{2} \left( 1 + \frac{\pi}{(1-t)w} \right)。
    消費 ct>0=12w(1−t)+12πc_{t>0} = \frac{1}{2} w (1-t) + \frac{1}{2} \pi。
    此時的效用為:
    Ut>0=ln⁡(12w(1−t)+12π)+ln⁡(12+12π(1−t)w)U_{t>0} = \ln\left(\frac{1}{2} w (1-t) + \frac{1}{2} \pi\right) + \ln\left(\frac{1}{2} + \frac{1}{2}\frac{\pi}{(1-t)w}\right)

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第 3 題25 分

[Economic Growth] (25 points) Consider a Solow growth model with no population growth and no technological progress. Time is discrete: t=0,1,2,…t = 0, 1, 2, \ldots. The aggregate production function is
Y=F(K,N)Y = F(K, N)
Where Y,K,and NY, K, \text{and } N are the aggregate output, aggregate capital, and aggregate labor. The households' behavior on consumption and investment is as follows: there is an exogenous saving rate s∈(0,1)s \in (0, 1), and a household uses s proportion of it output to invest and consume the rest, so
It=sYtI_t = sY_t,
Ct=(1−s)YtC_t = (1-s)Y_t.
Moreover, the accumulation of the aggregate capital follows
Kt+1=(1−δ)Kt+ItK_{t+1} = (1-\delta)K_t + I_t.
Where δ\delta is the depreciation rate of capital. Let kt=KtNtk_t = \frac{K_t}{N_t} denote the capital per capita.
(a) Let F(K,N)=AKαN1−αF(K, N) = A K^\alpha N^{1-\alpha}, where 0<α<10 < \alpha < 1.
i. (5 points) Use the accumulation rule of the aggregate capital to derive the law of motion for capital per capita ktk_t.
ii. (5 points) Solve for the steady state levels of capital per capita and consumption per capita.
(b) Now let F(K,N)=AKαN1−α+γF(K, N) = A K^\alpha N^{1-\alpha+\gamma}, where 0<α<10 < \alpha < 1 and γ>0\gamma > 0. Suppose that the economy was initially at a steady state, and the steady state capital per capita is equal to k∗>0k^* > 0.
i. (5 points) Compare the steady state levels of capital per capita before the earthquake and after the earthquake.
ii. (10 points) Identify from Figure 1 the closest dynamic paths of capital per capita and output per capita in the economy.
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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念

本題考查 Solow 成長模型中的:

  • 人均資本定義:kt=Kt/Ntk_t=K_t/N_t
  • 資本累積方程式
  • 穩態條件:kt+1=ktk_{t+1}=k_t
  • 人均生產函數與人均消費
  • 人口突然減少對人均資本、人均產出的影響

由於題目沒有人口成長與技術進步,人口在未發生地震前維持固定。


(a)F(K,N)=AKαN1−αF(K,N)=AK^\alpha N^{1-\alpha}

i. 人均資本的動態方程式

因為人口固定,Nt+1=Nt=NN_{t+1}=N_t=N。資本累積式為

Kt+1=(1−δ)Kt+sYtK_{t+1}=(1-\delta)K_t+sY_t

生產函數為

Yt=AKtαN1−αY_t=AK_t^\alpha N^{1-\alpha}

兩邊除以 NN:

Kt+1N=(1−δ)KtN+sAKtαN1−αN\frac{K_{t+1}}{N} =(1-\delta)\frac{K_t}{N} +sA\frac{K_t^\alpha N^{1-\alpha}}{N}

利用 kt=Kt/Nk_t=K_t/N,且 Kt=ktNK_t=k_tN:

KtαN1−αN=(ktN)αN1−αN=ktα\frac{K_t^\alpha N^{1-\alpha}}{N} =\frac{(k_tN)^\alpha N^{1-\alpha}}{N} =k_t^\alpha

因此人均資本的運動方程式為

kt+1=(1−δ)kt+sAktα\boxed{k_{t+1}=(1-\delta)k_t+sAk_t^\alpha}

人均消費為

ct=CtN=(1−s)YtN=(1−s)Aktαc_t=\frac{C_t}{N} =(1-s)\frac{Y_t}{N} =(1-s)Ak_t^\alpha

ii. 人均資本與人均消費的穩態

穩態時 kt+1=kt=k∗k_{t+1}=k_t=k^*,因此

k∗=(1−δ)k∗+sA(k∗)αk^*=(1-\delta)k^*+sA(k^*)^\alpha

整理得

δk∗=sA(k∗)α\delta k^*=sA(k^*)^\alpha

因為 k∗>0k^*>0,兩邊除以 (k∗)α(k^*)^\alpha:

δ(k∗)1−α=sA\delta(k^*)^{1-\alpha}=sA

所以穩態人均資本為

k∗=(sAδ)11−α\boxed{k^*=\left(\frac{sA}{\delta}\right)^{\frac{1}{1-\alpha}}}

穩態人均消費為

c∗=(1−s)A(k∗)αc^*=(1-s)A(k^*)^\alpha

代入 k∗k^*:

c∗=(1−s)A(sAδ)α1−α\boxed{ c^*=(1-s)A \left(\frac{sA}{\delta}\right)^{\frac{\alpha}{1-\alpha}} }

(b)F(K,N)=AKαN1−α+γF(K,N)=AK^\alpha N^{1-\alpha+\gamma}

i. 地震前後的穩態人均資本

此時人均生產函數為

yt=YtNt=AktαNtγy_t=\frac{Y_t}{N_t} =A k_t^\alpha N_t^\gamma

因此人均資本的運動方程式為

kt+1=(1−δ)kt+sAktαNtγk_{t+1} =(1-\delta)k_t+sA k_t^\alpha N_t^\gamma

固定人口水準下,穩態條件為

δk∗=sA(k∗)αNγ\delta k^*=sA(k^*)^\alpha N^\gamma

因此

k∗=(sANγδ)11−αk^* =\left(\frac{sA N^\gamma}{\delta}\right)^{\frac{1}{1-\alpha}}

地震使人口減少 50%,所以地震後人口為

N′=N2N'=\frac{N}{2}

地震後的穩態人均資本為

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