115 年 國立臺北大學中國文學系碩士班《中國思想史》

此題考查中國古代哲學中的「指物論」，主要與名辯學、邏輯學的發展相關。

「指物論」是名辯學中關於名實關係的一個重要議題，尤其在魏晉時期的名辯思潮中受到關注。簡單來說，指物論探討的是「名」與「物」的關係，亦即語言（名）如何指稱、代表現實世界中的事物（物）。

核心爭議在於：

1. 名是否必然指物？ 亦即，每一個名詞是否都必然對應到一個真實存在的事物？
2. 名與物的關係是怎樣的？ 名是先於物而存在，還是物先於名？名是約定俗成的，還是由事物的本質決定的？
3. 指稱的準確性與局限性。 語言能否完全、準確地把握事物的本質？

在中國思想史上，與指物論相關的討論，可以追溯到先秦的《論語》、《墨子》、《莊子》、《荀子》等，但真正將其系統化並引發激烈辯論的，是魏晉時期的玄學家，如劉邵、孫盛、殷浩、何晏、王弼、嵇康、阮籍等人。

「心齋」與「坐忘」是道家思想，特別是《莊子》中關於精神修養的兩個重要概念，常被合稱為「心齋坐忘」。

1. 心齋 (xīn zhāi)：

   • 出自《莊子．人間世》。原文：「顏回曰：『吾 un 坐忘矣。』孔子曰：『何謂坐忘？』顏回曰：『體解吾形，棄其聰，塞其兌， ratio ratio ， ratio ratio ， ratio ratio ， ratio ratio 。 ratio ratio ， ratio ratio ， ratio ratio ratio ratio 。 ratio ratio ， ratio ratio ， ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio 。 ratio ratio ratio ratio 。』孔子曰：『 ratio ratio ratio ratio ， ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio 。』」
   • 「心齋」字面意思是「使心齋戒」，但其內涵並非宗教性的齋戒，而是指一種精神上的淨化與虛靜狀態。
   • 其核心在於「虛己」，即去除主觀的成見、偏見、欲望、情緒等，使心靈保持空虛、寧靜、開放的狀態，如同一個「齋」一樣，能夠 receptively 地去感應外在世界的變化，而不被自我所蒙蔽。
   • 「心齋」的目的是為了達到「通於神明」，也就是能夠契合大道，洞察事物的真相。

2. 坐忘 (zuò wàng)：

   • 出自《莊子．大宗師》。原文：「顔回曰：『 ratio ratio 坐忘矣。』孔子曰：『 ratio ratio 坐忘？ ratio ratio ratio 。』顔回曰：『 ratio ratio ， ratio ratio ， ratio ratio ， ratio ratio ， ratio ratio ， ratio ratio ， ratio ratio ， ratio ratio ， ratio ratio ratio 。 ratio ratio ， ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio 。』」
   • 「坐忘」字面意思是「坐著而忘」，指一種精神高度集中、物我兩忘的境界。
   • 「坐忘」的過程是逐步的：
     • 「 ratio ratio ratio ratio 」（初步的忘卻形體）：不執著於身體的感受，不為身體的束縛所困。
     • 「 ratio ratio ratio ratio 」（進一步忘卻知識與聰明）：拋棄後天習得的知識、是非判斷、聰明才智，不再用固定的思維模式去分析事物。
     • 「 ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio ratio 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竺道生（約 370 年－434 年）是中國佛教史上，特別是般若學和涅槃學發展中的一位關鍵人物，也是佛圖澄之後，南北朝時期極具影響力的僧人。他以其「得意忘言」、「圓頓」的佛教思想，以及對佛經的獨到見解而聞名。

重要思想與貢獻：

1. 「得意忘言」說：

   • 這是竺道生最著名的思想之一，與《莊子》的「得意忘言」相呼應。
   • 他認為，佛法的真諦（「得意」）是無法完全用語言文字（「言」）來表達的。語言文字只是傳達佛法的工具，一旦領悟了佛法的真實義理，就不應執著於語言文字本身，否則就會產生執見，反而障礙了對真理的體悟。
   • 這對當時佛教翻譯和解釋佛經的方法產生了深遠影響，強調了義理的體悟高於文字的解釋。

2. 「圓頓」思想：

   • 竺道生提倡「圓頓」的解脫之道，認為佛法是圓滿、頓悟的，不需要經過漫長的階梯式修行。
   • 他主張「一切眾生皆有佛性」，並且這種佛性是現成的、本具的，人人皆可透過頓悟而即身成佛。
   • 這種思想強調了佛性的普遍性和即時性，對後來的禪宗思想有啟示作用。

「性三品」是中國南北朝時期，特別是南朝佛教，關於眾生佛性之差異所提出的分類學說。這個概念主要與《大般涅槃經》的傳播和解釋有關，並在當時引發了廣泛的討論。

核心概念：

「性三品」的說法，主要指眾生在稟賦佛性上存在三種不同的等級或類型。儘管不同學派或解說者在具體名目和解釋上略有差異，但其基本精神是：並非所有眾生都能平等地獲得佛果，有些眾生因為其先天的根性（佛性）差異，注定無法成佛，或需要極長的時間才能成佛。

主要的「性三品」說法及其爭議：

1. 「一闡提」不得成佛說：
   • 這是「性三品」中最具爭議的部分。根據《涅槃經》的某些解釋，存在一類眾生稱為「一闡提」（梵語：icchantika），他們斷絕善根，永不發菩提心，因此永遠無法成佛。
   • 當時一些僧人，如慧觀，就依據此解釋，將眾生分為三類：
     • 上品性： 能夠成佛的眾生。
     • 中品性： 需要極長劫數才能成佛的眾生。
     • 下品性： 即「一闡提」，永不得成佛的眾生。

「定性書」是中國南北朝時期，佛教界關於眾生「定性」與「不定性」之爭論的代表性文獻之一，與「性三品」的討論緊密相關。

背景：

在南北朝時期，隨著《大般涅槃經》等大乘佛經的傳入，關於「佛性」與眾生能否成佛的討論日益激烈。其中一個核心問題是，眾生是否具有「定性」，即是否有些眾生因為其根性（佛性）的差異，而「決定」了其最終的命運，注定只能成佛、不能成佛，或需要經過特定過程才能成佛。

「定性」與「不定性」之爭：

1. 定性論（例如：慧觀、法瑗等）：
   • 主張眾生有「定性」，即某些眾生天生就具有「定性」，他們的佛性是固定的，無法改變，因此注定只能成佛，或注定無法成佛。
   • 這種觀點通常將眾生分為「定性聲聞」、「定性緣覺」、「定性菩薩」、「不定性（或稱雜性）」，以及最為爭議的「無性眾生」（即「一闡提」），後者永不得成佛。
   • 「定性書」就是為闡述和論證這種「定性」觀點而寫的著作。

孟子與告子論性之辨是中國思想史上關於人性本質的早期重要辯論，對後世儒家和道家學說的發展產生了深遠影響。其核心在於探討人性的善惡與來源。

辯論雙方的主要觀點：

1. 孟子（性善論）

   • 核心主張： 人性本善。
   • 善的來源： 人的性中本來就具有四種「善端」（仁、義、禮、智），即「仁之端」為惻隱之心，「義之端」為羞惡之心，「禮之端」為辭讓之心，「智之端」為是非之心。這些善端是天賦的、先驗的，是「天理」在人心中的體現。
   • 性之定義： 孟子認為「性」是指人稟受於天（天命）的本然之性，是內在的、精神性的。他引用「生之謂性」來反駁告子，認為「生」不僅指生物學上的生命，更包含人之所以為人的道德本質。
   • 修養方法： 雖然人性本善，但善端容易被後天的氣質所蔽，或因不加培養而喪失。因此，需要通過「擴充」善端，即「存養」和「擴充」四端，使其發展為仁義禮智，最終達到聖人境界。
   • 「性」與「情」的區別： 孟子區分了「性」與「情」。性是本然的、善的；情是後天的、自然的、可能趨向於惡的。要讓性善得以實現，就必須節制情欲，順性而為。

2. 告子（性無善無惡或性善性惡兩可論）

   • 核心主張： 性無善無惡，或性善性惡兩可。
   • 善的來源： 告子認為「性」是「生之謂性」，即人出生後的自然稟賦，如同草木的「性」一樣，有其 natura 的生長趨勢。草木的「性」是 natura 的，不能說它是善是惡，只能說它是 natura 的。人的性也是如此，是 natura 的，無所謂善惡。
   • 性之定義： 告子將「性」理解為生物學上的、經驗的、後天的稟賦，強調其 natura 和可塑性。他認為「食、色，性也」，即食物和男女之愛是人的 natura 欲望，這些欲望本身是中性的。
   • 修養方法： 告子認為，善惡不是性本身所固有的，而是後天環境、教育以及人為努力（「偽」）所造就的。人通過後天的學習和努力（「偽」），才能產生善。他舉例說，猶如木可以成為木器，水可以流向東也可以流向西，善惡是可以通過後天人為來決定的。
   • 「性」與「情」的關係： 告子認為性是 natura 的，情是 natura 的欲望，兩者是相近的。善是通過「偽」（人為的努力）來產生的。

辯論的要點總結：

這句話出自《莊子》一書，但其確切來源和歸屬，在學術上存在一些爭議。然而，從其思想內容來看，它高度體現了莊子學派的哲學精神，特別是關於「天」、「道」、「性」、「命」以及人如何超越外在限制的主張。

出處考證與思想歸屬：

• 《莊子》內篇： 儘管在現有的《莊子》內篇（逍遙遊、 齊物論、 養生主、 人間世、 德充符、 大宗師、 應帝王）中，並沒有完全一模一樣的句子出現。
• 《莊子》外篇或雜篇： 有學者認為此類思想可能散見於《莊子》的外篇或雜篇，這些篇章的作者和成書年代相對較晚，思想內容也可能有所演變。
• 後世的解說或引述： 也有可能是後世儒道學家在引述或解說莊子思想時，為了闡明某個觀點而整合或創設的句子。

但無論確切出處為何，其思想內容明顯屬於莊子學派的範疇，尤其是與「齊物論」、「德充符」等篇章的思想一脈相承。

思想要旨闡述：

這句話可以拆解為兩個部分來理解：

第一部分：「天所性者通極於道,氣之昏明不足以蔽之。」

• 天所性者： 指的是「天」賦予人的本性，也就是人與生俱來的、與大道相通的本然狀態。在莊子看來，「天」並非人格神，而是指宇宙的本源、自然的規律，即「道」。因此，「天所性者」可以理解為人與「道」相契合的本性。
• 通極於道： 意思是能夠通達、達到「道」的極致。人本來的性，是與「道」相通的，如果能夠順應這種本性，就能達到與「道」合一的境界。
• 氣之昏明： 「氣」是指構成宇宙萬物的物質性要素，也包括人體內的生命之氣。氣有清濁、昏明之分。這裡的「昏明」可以理解為感官的敏銳或遲鈍，知識的有無，情感的波動，社會的紛擾，乃至身體的健康與否等。
• 不足以蔽之： 意思是這些由「氣」所產生的種種現象，不足以遮蔽人與「道」相通的本性。即使感官遲鈍、知識有限、情感波動、身處紛擾，只要不失其本然之心，就能保持與大道的連結。

這一部分的思想核心是：人具有與大道相通的本性，這種本性是超越物質「氣」的限制的。

第二部分：「天所命者通極於性,遇之吉凶不足以戕之。」

郭象（約 252－312 年）是西晉時期著名的玄學家，他為《莊子》所作的注，被譽為「郭象注《莊子》」，是中國哲學史上對《莊子》進行系統性闡釋的經典之作。郭象的注疏，不僅標誌著玄學的高峰，也對後世的儒、道、佛思想產生了重要影響。其特色主要體現在以下幾個方面：

1. 玄學化的闡釋，融合儒道：

   • 「貴無論」的確立： 郭象的《莊子注》是「貴無論」思想的集大成者。他主張「物各自造，物各自生」，否定了有外在的造物主或先驗的本體（如「理」或「道」），認為萬物都是 natura 的生成、變化，無所謂絕對的「無」或「有」的先後、高下。這是對魏晉玄學中「有」與「無」之爭的重大推進。
   • 對「道」的理解： 郭象不認為「道」是一個獨立存在的實體，而是 natura 的生成、變化過程本身。他認為「道」就是「自然」，是萬物 natura 的運行規律。
   • 對「性」的理解： 郭象的「性」與其「貴無論」相關，認為人的性是 natura 的，是 natura 的生成，無所謂絕對的善惡，強調順性而為。
   • 融合儒家倫理： 郭象雖然是道家思想家，但他並非完全否定現實社會的倫理道德。他認為，在 natura 生成的基礎上，儒家的倫理道德（如君臣、父子）是 natura 社會秩序的體現，是 natura 發展的結果，並非人為的約束。他試圖調和道家的超脫與儒家的入世，強調「處無為之事，行不言之教」，但同時肯定社會的秩序和規範。

2. 強調「獨化」與「自生」：

   • 郭象認為，萬物都是 natura 的「獨化」或「自生」，即各自獨立生成，不需要外在的力量來造就。這與當時流行的「有」與「無」的辯論（如成玄的「有」與向秀的「無」）形成對比。
   • 他認為，所謂「無」並非虛無，而是指「無為」，即 natura 的生成，不加干預。所謂「有」也不是實質性的「有」，而是 natura 生成的現象。

3. 對《莊子》原文的「還淳返本」：

   • 郭象的註解，旨在恢復《莊子》的本義，去除後人對《莊子》的種種誤解和穿鑿附會。他認為《莊子》的本意是追求 natura 的真實，反對人為的虛偽和造作。