108 年 國立中央大學企業管理學系碩士班乙組《統計學》

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第 1 題

Suppose there are 3 random variables, X1X_1, X2X_2, and X3X_3, and their expected values are 2, 0, and -1, respectively. We also know their variances are 2, 1, and 2, respectively. The covariance between X1X_1 and X2X_2 is -1, and the covariance between X2X_2 and X3X_3 is 1, while X1X_1 and X3X_3 are independent. Try to find the following:
(a) The expected value and the variance of W1=X1+X2+X3W_1 = X_1+X_2+X_3? (5 pts)
(b) The expected value and the variance of W2=2X1−X3W_2 = 2X_1-X_3? (5 pts)
(c) The covariance between W1W_1 and W2W_2. (5 pts)

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這一題的完整詳解

這題主要在考驗隨機變數的期望值、變異數以及共變異數的性質。

已知:
E(X1)=2E(X_1) = 2, Var(X1)=2Var(X_1) = 2
E(X2)=0E(X_2) = 0, Var(X2)=1Var(X_2) = 1
E(X3)=−1E(X_3) = -1, Var(X3)=2Var(X_3) = 2
Cov(X1,X2)=−1Cov(X_1, X_2) = -1
Cov(X2,X3)=1Cov(X_2, X_3) = 1
X1X_1 and X3X_3 are independent, which implies Cov(X1,X3)=0Cov(X_1, X_3) = 0.

(a) 求解 W1=X1+X2+X3W_1 = X_1+X_2+X_3 的期望值與變異數。

期望值性質:E(aX+bY)=aE(X)+bE(Y)E(aX+bY) = aE(X) + bE(Y)
E(W1)=E(X1+X2+X3)=E(X1)+E(X2)+E(X3)=2+0+(−1)=1E(W_1) = E(X_1+X_2+X_3) = E(X_1) + E(X_2) + E(X_3) = 2 + 0 + (-1) = 1

變異數性質:Var(aX+bY)=a2Var(X)+b2Var(Y)+2abCov(X,Y)Var(aX+bY) = a^2Var(X) + b^2Var(Y) + 2abCov(X,Y)
Var(W1)=Var(X1+X2+X3)Var(W_1) = Var(X_1+X_2+X_3)
=Var(X1)+Var(X2)+Var(X3)+2Cov(X1,X2)+2Cov(X1,X3)+2Cov(X2,X3)= Var(X_1) + Var(X_2) + Var(X_3) + 2Cov(X_1, X_2) + 2Cov(X_1, X_3) + 2Cov(X_2, X_3)
=2+1+2+2(−1)+2(0)+2(1)= 2 + 1 + 2 + 2(-1) + 2(0) + 2(1)
=2+1+2−2+0+2=5= 2 + 1 + 2 - 2 + 0 + 2 = 5

【答案】
E(W1)=1E(W_1) = 1
Var(W1)=5Var(W_1) = 5

(b) 求解 W2=2X1−X3W_2 = 2X_1-X_3 的期望值與變異數。

期望值:
E(W2)=E(2X1−X3)=2E(X1)−E(X3)=2(2)−(−1)=4+1=5E(W_2) = E(2X_1-X_3) = 2E(X_1) - E(X_3) = 2(2) - (-1) = 4 + 1 = 5

變異數:
Var(W2)=Var(2X1−X3)Var(W_2) = Var(2X_1-X_3)
=Var(2X1)+Var(−X3)+2Cov(2X1,−X3)= Var(2X_1) + Var(-X_3) + 2Cov(2X_1, -X_3)

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第 2 題

To test a particular coin fair or not, (i.e. p=Pr("head")=0.5p = Pr(\text{"head"}) = 0.5), we decide to flip the coin nn times. Let XX denote the number of heads appearing in nn flips.
(a) Please provide a M.L.E. of pp; (5 points)
(b) Let n=4n = 4, try to use XX to be the test statistics to develop a test on H0:p=0.5H_0: p = 0.5
(1) Show the distribution of XX. (5 points)
(2) Let's set the significant level, α\alpha, to be 0.15, show the rejection rule. (5 points)
(3) Based on your rejection rule in (b-2), what is the testing power on Ha:p=0.3H_a: p = 0.3? (5 points)
(4) If only one head appears in 4 flips, what is your conclusion? (5 points)
(5) Please develop a 85% confidence interval of pp. (5 points)
(c) If n=50n = 50, let's use Y=X/nY = X/n to be the test statistics to test on H0:p=0.5H_0: p = 0.5
(1) Since n=50n = 50, we can invoke the Central Limit Theory, show the approximate distribution of YY. (5 points)
(2) Let's set the significant level, α\alpha, to be 0.15, show the rejection rule. In other words, what is the critical number of heads appearing to reject H0H_0. (5 points)
(3) Based on your rejection rule in (c-2), what is the testing power on Ha:p=0.3H_a: p = 0.3? (5 points)
(4) Please develop a 85% confidence interval of pp. (5 points)

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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念

本題考查:

  • 二項分配:X∼Binomial⁡(n,p)X\sim\operatorname{Binomial}(n,p)。
  • 最大概似估計法(M.L.E.)。
  • 雙尾假設檢定:H0:p=0.5H_0:p=0.5 對 Ha:p≠0.5H_a:p\ne0.5。
  • 顯著水準 α\alpha、檢定力(power)。
  • 中央極限定理(Central Limit Theorem)。
  • 二項母體比例的信賴區間。

「硬幣是否公平」表示只要 pp 偏離 0.50.5,無論偏大或偏小都應拒絕虛無假設,因此採用雙尾檢定。


(a) pp 的最大概似估計量

令觀察到 nn 次擲幣中有 xx 次正面,則

P(X=x)=(nx)px(1−p)n−x.P(X=x)=\binom{n}{x}p^x(1-p)^{n-x}.

概似函數為

L(p)=(nx)px(1−p)n−x.L(p)=\binom{n}{x}p^x(1-p)^{n-x}.

取對數概似函數:

ℓ(p)=ln⁡(nx)+xln⁡p+(n−x)ln⁡(1−p).\ell(p)=\ln\binom{n}{x}+x\ln p+(n-x)\ln(1-p).

對 pp 微分並令其等於 00:

dℓ(p)dp=xp−n−x1−p=0.\frac{d\ell(p)}{dp} = \frac{x}{p}-\frac{n-x}{1-p}=0.

因此

x(1−p)=(n−x)p,x(1-p)=(n-x)p, x=np.x=np.

所以最大概似估計量為

p^=Xn.\boxed{\hat p=\frac{X}{n}}.

(b) n=4n=4,以 XX 為檢定統計量

(b-1) XX 的分配

因為每次擲幣只有正面或反面,且各次擲幣相互獨立,所以

X∼Binomial⁡(4,p).X\sim\operatorname{Binomial}(4,p).

在虛無假設 H0:p=0.5H_0:p=0.5 下,

P(X=x)=(4x)(0.5)x(0.5)4−x=(4x)(12)4.P(X=x)=\binom{4}{x}(0.5)^x(0.5)^{4-x} =\binom{4}{x}\left(\frac12\right)^4.

因此:

xxPH0(X=x)P_{H_0}(X=x)
00116=0.0625\dfrac{1}{16}=0.0625
11416=0.25\dfrac{4}{16}=0.25
22616=0.375\dfrac{6}{16}=0.375
33416=0.25\dfrac{4}{16}=0.25
44116=0.0625\dfrac{1}{16}=0.0625

分配具有對稱性,最能支持「硬幣不公平」的結果是 X=0X=0 或 X=4X=4,因為四次全部為反面或全部為正面。


(b-2) 顯著水準 α=0.15\alpha=0.15 下的拒絕域

由於是雙尾檢定,先選擇兩端最極端的結果:

PH0(X=0 或 X=4)=116+116=18=0.125.P_{H_0}(X=0\text{ 或 }X=4) = \frac{1}{16}+\frac{1}{16} = \frac18 = 0.125.

因為

0.125≤0.15,0.125\le 0.15,

所以非隨機化檢定的拒絕域為

R={X=0,4}.\boxed{R=\{X=0,4\}}.

亦即:

若 X=0 或 X=4, 則拒絕 H0。\boxed{\text{若 }X=0\text{ 或 }X=4,\text{ 則拒絕 }H_0。}

此檢定的實際顯著水準為 0.1250.125,小於名目顯著水準 0.150.15。若再納入 X=1X=1 或 X=3X=3,拒絕機率會增加為

0.125+0.25+0.25=0.625,0.125+0.25+0.25=0.625,

超過 0.150.15,因此不能納入。


(b-3) 在 Ha:p=0.3H_a:p=0.3 下的檢定力

檢定力定義為在替代假設成立時拒絕 H0H_0 的機率。

本題拒絕域為 X=0X=0 或 X=4X=4,所以在 p=0.3p=0.3 下:

Power=Pp=0.3(X=0 或 X=4)=Pp=0.3(X=0)+Pp=0.3(X=4)=(40)(0.3)0(0.7)4+(44)(0.3)4(0.7)0=(0.7)4+(0.3)4=0.2401+0.0081=0.2482.\begin{aligned} \text{Power} &=P_{p=0.3}(X=0\text{ 或 }X=4)\\ &=P_{p=0.3}(X=0)+P_{p=0.3}(X=4)\\ &=\binom40(0.3)^0(0.7)^4 +\binom44(0.3)^4(0.7)^0\\ &=(0.7)^4+(0.3)^4\\ &=0.2401+0.0081\\ &=\boxed{0.2482}. \end{aligned}

因此檢定力為

24.82%.\boxed{24.82\%}.

(b-4) 若四次擲幣只有一次正面

此時

X=1.X=1.

由於拒絕域為 {0,4}\{0,4\},而 X=1X=1 不在拒絕域內,因此

不拒絕 H0:p=0.5。\boxed{\text{不拒絕 }H_0:p=0.5。}

統計上的結論是:在此顯著水準下,沒有足夠證據認定硬幣不公平。

必須注意,「不拒絕 H0H_0」不等於證明硬幣一定公平,只表示目前的樣本證據不足以支持硬幣不公平。


(b-5) pp 的 85% 信賴區間

承接上一小題,觀察值為 x=1x=1。由於樣本數只有 44,採用二項分配的 Clopper–Pearson 精確信賴區間較合適。

信賴水準為 85%85\%,所以

α=0.15,α2=0.075.\alpha=0.15,\qquad \frac{\alpha}{2}=0.075.

當 x=1,n=4x=1,n=4 時,精確信賴區間為

[B−1(0.075;1,4),B−1(0.925;2,3)],\left[ B^{-1}(0.075;1,4), B^{-1}(0.925;2,3) \right],

其中 B−1(q;a,b)B^{-1}(q;a,b) 表示 Beta 分配的第 qq 分位數。

下限可由

1−(1−pL)4=0.0751-(1-p_L)^4=0.075

求得:

pL=1−(0.925)1/4≈0.0193.p_L=1-(0.925)^{1/4}\approx0.0193.

上限由

PpU(X≤1)=0.075P_{p_U}(X\le1)=0.075

求得,數值約為

pU≈0.7117.p_U\approx0.7117.

因此,85% 精確信賴區間為

0.0193≤p≤0.7117.\boxed{0.0193\le p\le0.7117}.

這個區間相當寬,原因是樣本數僅有 44 次,估計比例的不確定性很高。


(c) n=50n=50,以 Y=X/nY=X/n 為檢定統計量

令

Y=Xn=X50.Y=\frac{X}{n}=\frac{X}{50}.

YY 是樣本中正面出現的比例。

(c-1) YY 的近似分配

因為

X∼Binomial⁡(n,p),X\sim\operatorname{Binomial}(n,p),

所以

E(X)=np,Var⁡(X)=np(1−p).E(X)=np,\qquad \operatorname{Var}(X)=np(1-p).

因此

E(Y)=E(Xn)=p,E(Y)=E\left(\frac Xn\right)=p,

且

Var⁡(Y)=Var⁡(X)n2=p(1−p)n.\operatorname{Var}(Y) = \frac{\operatorname{Var}(X)}{n^2} = \frac{p(1-p)}{n}.
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第 3 題

An experiment was performed to investigate the effectiveness of three materials. Five samples of each material were tested and the failure times (in seconds) are shown below:

| Material | \multicolumn{5}{c|}{Failure Time (seconds)} |
| :------- | :--------------------------------------: | :--------------------------------------: | :--------------------------------------: | :--------------------------------------: | :--------------------------------------: |
| A | 52 | 50 | 47 | 65 | 46 |
| B | 44 | 58 | 48 | 60 | 64 |
| C | 70 | 95 | 88 | 86 | 89 |

Assume that the variances for three materials are the same, and the failure times are normally distributed.
(a) Use α=0.05\alpha=0.05, do all three materials have the same effect on the mean failure time? (10 pts)
(b) Please develop the 95% confidence intervals of the mean failure times for three materials separately. Construct a graphical display of these three confidence intervals. (10 pts)
(c) When we do pairwise comparison, at α=0.05\alpha=0.05, does there exist any significant difference on mean failure time between any pair of materials? (15 pts)

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這一題的完整詳解

本題主要考驗單因子變異數分析 (One-way ANOVA) 的應用,包括 F 檢定、信賴區間以及事後比較 (post-hoc test)。

首先,我們需要計算各組的樣本數、樣本均值、樣本變異數以及總體變異數。
樣本數:nA=nB=nC=5n_A = n_B = n_C = 5。總樣本數 N=nA+nB+nC=5+5+5=15N = n_A + n_B + n_C = 5 + 5 + 5 = 15。
組間自由度 dfbetween=k−1=3−1=2df_{between} = k-1 = 3-1 = 2。
組內自由度 dfwithin=N−k=15−3=12df_{within} = N-k = 15-3 = 12。

計算各組樣本均值:
XˉA=52+50+47+65+465=2605=52\bar{X}_A = \frac{52+50+47+65+46}{5} = \frac{260}{5} = 52
XˉB=44+58+48+60+645=2745=54.8\bar{X}_B = \frac{44+58+48+60+64}{5} = \frac{274}{5} = 54.8
XˉC=70+95+88+86+895=4285=85.6\bar{X}_C = \frac{70+95+88+86+89}{5} = \frac{428}{5} = 85.6

計算各組樣本變異數:
sA2=15−1∑i=15(XAi−XˉA)2=14[(52−52)2+(50−52)2+(47−52)2+(65−52)2+(46−52)2]s_A^2 = \frac{1}{5-1} \sum_{i=1}^5 (X_{Ai} - \bar{X}_A)^2 = \frac{1}{4} [(52-52)^2 + (50-52)^2 + (47-52)^2 + (65-52)^2 + (46-52)^2]
sA2=14[02+(−2)2+(−5)2+(13)2+(−6)2]=14[0+4+25+169+36]=2344=58.5s_A^2 = \frac{1}{4} [0^2 + (-2)^2 + (-5)^2 + (13)^2 + (-6)^2] = \frac{1}{4} [0 + 4 + 25 + 169 + 36] = \frac{234}{4} = 58.5

sB2=15−1∑i=15(XBi−XˉB)2=14[(44−54.8)2+(58−54.8)2+(48−54.8)2+(60−54.8)2+(64−54.8)2]s_B^2 = \frac{1}{5-1} \sum_{i=1}^5 (X_{Bi} - \bar{X}_B)^2 = \frac{1}{4} [(44-54.8)^2 + (58-54.8)^2 + (48-54.8)^2 + (60-54.8)^2 + (64-54.8)^2]
sB2=14[(−10.8)2+(3.2)2+(−6.8)2+(5.2)2+(9.2)2]s_B^2 = \frac{1}{4} [(-10.8)^2 + (3.2)^2 + (-6.8)^2 + (5.2)^2 + (9.2)^2]
sB2=14[116.64+10.24+46.24+27.04+84.64]=284.84=71.2s_B^2 = \frac{1}{4} [116.64 + 10.24 + 46.24 + 27.04 + 84.64] = \frac{284.8}{4} = 71.2

sC2=15−1∑i=15(XCi−XˉC)2=14[(70−85.6)2+(95−85.6)2+(88−85.6)2+(86−85.6)2+(89−85.6)2]s_C^2 = \frac{1}{5-1} \sum_{i=1}^5 (X_{Ci} - \bar{X}_C)^2 = \frac{1}{4} [(70-85.6)^2 + (95-85.6)^2 + (88-85.6)^2 + (86-85.6)^2 + (89-85.6)^2]
sC2=14[(−15.6)2+(9.4)2+(2.4)2+(0.4)2+(3.4)2]s_C^2 = \frac{1}{4} [(-15.6)^2 + (9.4)^2 + (2.4)^2 + (0.4)^2 + (3.4)^2]
sC2=14[243.36+88.36+5.76+0.16+11.56]=349.24=87.3s_C^2 = \frac{1}{4} [243.36 + 88.36 + 5.76 + 0.16 + 11.56] = \frac{349.2}{4} = 87.3

由於題目假設各組變異數相同 (pooled variance),我們計算合併變異數 sp2s_p^2。
sp2=∑i=1k(ni−1)si2N−k=(5−1)sA2+(5−1)sB2+(5−1)sC215−3s_p^2 = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^k (n_i-1)s_i^2}{N-k} = \frac{(5-1)s_A^2 + (5-1)s_B^2 + (5-1)s_C^2}{15-3}
sp2=4(58.5)+4(71.2)+4(87.3)12=234+284.8+349.212=86812≈72.33s_p^2 = \frac{4(58.5) + 4(71.2) + 4(87.3)}{12} = \frac{234 + 284.8 + 349.2}{12} = \frac{868}{12} \approx 72.33

(a) α=0.05\alpha=0.05,檢定所有三個材料是否對平均故障時間有相同影響。
這是單因子變異數分析的整體檢定。
虛無假設 H0:μA=μB=μCH_0: \mu_A = \mu_B = \mu_C
對立假設 Ha:H_a: 至少有一個 μi\mu_i 不同。

計算總體平均數 Xˉgrand=∑i,jXijN=260+274+42815=96215≈64.13\bar{X}_{grand} = \frac{\sum_{i,j} X_{ij}}{N} = \frac{260+274+428}{15} = \frac{962}{15} \approx 64.13

計算組間平方和 (SSTr 或 SSB) 和組內平方和 (SSE)。
SSTr =∑i=1kni(Xˉi−Xˉgrand)2= \sum_{i=1}^k n_i (\bar{X}_i - \bar{X}_{grand})^2
SSTr =5(52−64.13)2+5(54.8−64.13)2+5(85.6−64.13)2= 5(52 - 64.13)^2 + 5(54.8 - 64.13)^2 + 5(85.6 - 64.13)^2
SSTr =5(−12.13)2+5(−9.33)2+5(21.47)2= 5(-12.13)^2 + 5(-9.33)^2 + 5(21.47)^2
SSTr =5(147.14)+5(87.05)+5(461.06)= 5(147.14) + 5(87.05) + 5(461.06)
SSTr =735.7+435.25+2305.3=3476.25= 735.7 + 435.25 + 2305.3 = 3476.25

SSE =∑i=1k(ni−1)si2=4(58.5)+4(71.2)+4(87.3)=234+284.8+349.2=868= \sum_{i=1}^k (n_i-1)s_i^2 = 4(58.5) + 4(71.2) + 4(87.3) = 234 + 284.8 + 349.2 = 868
(這與上面計算的 12×sp212 \times s_p^2 相同)

平均組間平方 (MSTr) =SSTr/dfbetween=3476.25/2=1738.125= SSTr / df_{between} = 3476.25 / 2 = 1738.125
平均組內平方 (MSE) =SSE/dfwithin=868/12≈72.33= SSE / df_{within} = 868 / 12 \approx 72.33 (這就是 sp2s_p^2)

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第 4 題

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第 5 題

(此題掃描不清,無法辨識,請參考原卷)

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