115 年 國立臺北大學經濟學系碩士班《總體經濟學》

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第 1 題

Consider a closed economy described by the Solow-Swan growth model with government in discrete time t. Aggregate real output (Yt) is allocated among aggregate consumption (Ct), gross investment (It), and government purchases (Gt). On the supply side, aggregate output is produced according to the Cobb-Douglas production function Yt=AKtαLt1−αY_t = AK_t^\alpha L_t^{1-\alpha}, where A > 0, 0<α<10 < \alpha < 1, and KtK_t and LtL_t denote aggregate physical capital and labor, respectively. The capital depreciation rate is d, and the population growth rate is n. The government runs a balanced budget, so that Gt=τYtG_t = \tau Y_t, where τ∈(0,1)\tau \in (0,1) is the proportional income tax rate. National saving is given by s(1−τ)Yts(1-\tau)Y_t, where s is the saving rate and (1−τ)Yt(1-\tau)Y_t denotes aggregate disposable income. When the goods market is in equilibrium, national saving is equal to gross investment. Gross investment is the flow variable that governs the accumulation of physical capital over time.

(1) Let kt=Kt/Ltk_t = K_t/L_t denote capital per worker. Derive the first-order difference equation governing the evolution of capital per worker, that is, kt+1=g(kt)k_{t+1} = g(k_t), for this economy. (5%)
(2) Continuing from part 1, let yt,cty_t, c_t, and gtg_t denote output per worker, consumption per worker, and government purchases per worker, respectively. In the long run, as t→∞t \to \infty, derive the steady-state values of capital per worker (k∗k^*), output per worker (y∗y^*), consumption per worker (c∗c^*), and government purchases per worker (g∗g^*), expressed in terms of the exogenous parameters. (5%)
(3) Show mathematically that, under the Golden Rule, the exogenous saving rate must equal one of the other exogenous parameters in this system. Identify this parameter and explain the economic interpretation of the result. (Hint: The Golden Rule maximizes steady-state consumption per worker, which depends on capital accumulation driven by saving out of disposable income.) (10%)

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這一題的完整詳解

本題為一個考慮政府部門的離散時間 Solow-Swan 模型,要求推導資本深化率的動態方程式、穩態值,以及黃金律的條件。

核心觀念:

  • Solow-Swan 模型:資本積累、產出函數、穩態分析。
  • 政府部門:租稅與政府購買對儲蓄與投資的影響。
  • 黃金律:最大化穩態每人消費。

(1) 推導資本深化率的動態方程式 kt+1=g(kt)k_{t+1} = g(k_t)

首先,我們將總體經濟變數轉換為每人變數。假設勞動人口成長率為 nn,且技術不變。
總產出:Yt=AKtαLt1−αY_t = A K_t^\alpha L_t^{1-\alpha}
每人產出:yt=Yt/Lt=A(Kt/Lt)α=Aktαy_t = Y_t/L_t = A (K_t/L_t)^\alpha = A k_t^\alpha

資本的變動由投資減去折舊與因人口成長而稀釋的部分。
資本存量變動:Kt+1−Kt=It−dKtK_{t+1} - K_t = I_t - dK_t
兩邊同除以 LtL_t:
(Kt+1/Lt)−(Kt/Lt)=(It/Lt)−d(Kt/Lt)(K_{t+1}/L_t) - (K_t/L_t) = (I_t/L_t) - d(K_t/L_t)
由於 Lt+1=(1+n)LtL_{t+1} = (1+n)L_t,則 Kt+1/Lt=(Kt+1/Lt+1)⋅(Lt+1/Lt)=kt+1(1+n)K_{t+1}/L_t = (K_{t+1}/L_{t+1}) \cdot (L_{t+1}/L_t) = k_{t+1}(1+n)。
因此,資本深化率的變動方程式為:
kt+1(1+n)−kt=it−dktk_{t+1}(1+n) - k_t = i_t - dk_t
其中 it=It/Lti_t = I_t/L_t 為每人總投資。

根據題目,商品市場均衡條件為:國民儲蓄等於總投資。
St=ItS_t = I_t
題目給定政府收支平衡,且租稅率為 τ\tau,政府購買為 GtG_t。
Gt=τYtG_t = \tau Y_t
國民儲蓄為 St=s(1−τ)YtS_t = s(1-\tau)Y_t。
因此,總投資為 It=St=s(1−τ)YtI_t = S_t = s(1-\tau)Y_t。

將每人變數代入:
每人總投資:it=It/Lt=s(1−τ)Yt/Lt=s(1−τ)yti_t = I_t/L_t = s(1-\tau)Y_t/L_t = s(1-\tau)y_t
it=s(1−τ)Aktαi_t = s(1-\tau) A k_t^\alpha

將 iti_t 代入資本深化率的變動方程式:
kt+1(1+n)−kt=s(1−τ)Aktα−dktk_{t+1}(1+n) - k_t = s(1-\tau) A k_t^\alpha - dk_t
kt+1(1+n)=(1−d)kt+s(1−τ)Aktαk_{t+1}(1+n) = (1-d)k_t + s(1-\tau) A k_t^\alpha
kt+1=1−d1+nkt+s(1−τ)A1+nktαk_{t+1} = \frac{1-d}{1+n} k_t + \frac{s(1-\tau) A}{1+n} k_t^\alpha

這就是資本深化率的動態方程式,即 kt+1=g(kt)k_{t+1} = g(k_t)。

【答案】 kt+1=1−d1+nkt+s(1−τ)A1+nktαk_{t+1} = \frac{1-d}{1+n} k_t + \frac{s(1-\tau) A}{1+n} k_t^\alpha

(2) 推導穩態值 k∗,y∗,c∗,g∗k^*, y^*, c^*, g^*

穩態時,kt+1=kt=k∗k_{t+1} = k_t = k^*。
將此代入動態方程式:
k∗=1−d1+nk∗+s(1−τ)A1+n(k∗)αk^* = \frac{1-d}{1+n} k^* + \frac{s(1-\tau) A}{1+n} (k^*)^\alpha
k∗−1−d1+nk∗=s(1−τ)A1+n(k∗)αk^* - \frac{1-d}{1+n} k^* = \frac{s(1-\tau) A}{1+n} (k^*)^\alpha
1+n−(1−d)1+nk∗=s(1−τ)A1+n(k∗)α\frac{1+n - (1-d)}{1+n} k^* = \frac{s(1-\tau) A}{1+n} (k^*)^\alpha
n+d1+nk∗=s(1−τ)A1+n(k∗)α\frac{n+d}{1+n} k^* = \frac{s(1-\tau) A}{1+n} (k^*)^\alpha
n+ds(1−τ)A=(k∗)α−1\frac{n+d}{s(1-\tau) A} = (k^*)^{\alpha-1}
(k∗)α−1=n+ds(1−τ)A(k^*)^{\alpha-1} = \frac{n+d}{s(1-\tau) A}
k∗=(s(1−τ)An+d)11−αk^* = \left( \frac{s(1-\tau) A}{n+d} \right)^{\frac{1}{1-\alpha}}

穩態每人產出:
y∗=A(k∗)α=A(s(1−τ)An+d)α1−αy^* = A (k^*)^\alpha = A \left( \frac{s(1-\tau) A}{n+d} \right)^{\frac{\alpha}{1-\alpha}}

穩態政府購買:
Gt=τYt  ⟹  gt=Gt/Lt=τYt/Lt=τytG_t = \tau Y_t \implies g_t = G_t/L_t = \tau Y_t/L_t = \tau y_t
g∗=τy∗=τA(s(1−τ)An+d)α1−αg^* = \tau y^* = \tau A \left( \frac{s(1-\tau) A}{n+d} \right)^{\frac{\alpha}{1-\alpha}}

穩態消費:
商品市場均衡:yt=ct+it+gty_t = c_t + i_t + g_t
國民儲蓄:St=s(1−τ)Yt  ⟹  st=s(1−τ)ytS_t = s(1-\tau)Y_t \implies s_t = s(1-\tau)y_t
總投資:It=St  ⟹  it=st=s(1−τ)ytI_t = S_t \implies i_t = s_t = s(1-\tau)y_t
穩態時:i∗=s(1−τ)y∗i^* = s(1-\tau)y^*
y∗=c∗+i∗+g∗y^* = c^* + i^* + g^*
c∗=y∗−i∗−g∗c^* = y^* - i^* - g^*
c∗=y∗−s(1−τ)y∗−τy∗c^* = y^* - s(1-\tau)y^* - \tau y^*
c∗=y∗(1−s(1−τ)−τ)c^* = y^* (1 - s(1-\tau) - \tau)
c∗=y∗(1−s+sτ−τ)c^* = y^* (1 - s + s\tau - \tau)
c∗=y∗(1−τ(1−s)−s)c^* = y^* (1 - \tau(1-s) - s)

將 y∗y^* 代入:
c∗=(1−s(1−τ)−τ)A(s(1−τ)An+d)α1−αc^* = \left( 1 - s(1-\tau) - \tau \right) A \left( \frac{s(1-\tau) A}{n+d} \right)^{\frac{\alpha}{1-\alpha}}

【答案】
k∗=(s(1−τ)An+d)11−αk^* = \left( \frac{s(1-\tau) A}{n+d} \right)^{\frac{1}{1-\alpha}}
y∗=A(s(1−τ)An+d)α1−αy^* = A \left( \frac{s(1-\tau) A}{n+d} \right)^{\frac{\alpha}{1-\alpha}}
g∗=τy∗g^* = \tau y^*
c∗=y∗(1−s(1−τ)−τ)c^* = y^* (1 - s(1-\tau) - \tau)

(3) 黃金律與外生參數的關係

黃金律的條件是最大化穩態每人消費 c∗c^*。
c∗=y∗−i∗−g∗c^* = y^* - i^* - g^*
c∗=Ak∗α−(d+n)k∗−τAk∗αc^* = A k^{*\alpha} - (d+n) k^* - \tau A k^{*\alpha} (這裡將 i∗=(d+n)k∗i^* = (d+n)k^* 代入,因為穩態時 i∗=s(1−τ)y∗i^* = s(1-\tau)y^*, 且 y∗=Ak∗αy^* = A k^{*\alpha},所以 s(1−τ)Ak∗α=(d+n)k∗s(1-\tau)A k^{*\alpha} = (d+n)k^*,故 s(1−τ)=(d+n)k∗Ak∗α=d+nAk∗α−1s(1-\tau) = \frac{(d+n)k^*}{A k^{*\alpha}} = \frac{d+n}{A k^{*\alpha-1}}。所以 i∗=d+nAk∗α−1Ak∗α=(d+n)k∗i^* = \frac{d+n}{A k^{*\alpha-1}} A k^{*\alpha} = (d+n)k^*)
c∗=(1−τ)y∗−(d+n)k∗c^* = (1-\tau)y^* - (d+n)k^*
c∗=(1−τ)Ak∗α−(d+n)k∗c^* = (1-\tau) A k^{*\alpha} - (d+n) k^*

為求最大值,對 k∗k^* 微分並設為零:
dc∗dk∗=(1−τ)Aα(k∗)α−1−(d+n)=0\frac{dc^*}{dk^*} = (1-\tau) A \alpha (k^*)^{\alpha-1} - (d+n) = 0
(1−τ)Aα(k∗)α−1=d+n(1-\tau) A \alpha (k^*)^{\alpha-1} = d+n

黃金律的條件是邊際產出(扣除政府購買的部分)等於資本的折舊與人口成長率之和。
MPK∗=dY∗dK∗=αAK∗α−1L∗1−α=αAk∗α−1MPK^* = \frac{dY^*}{dK^*} = \alpha A K^{*\alpha-1} L^{*1-\alpha} = \alpha A k^{*\alpha-1}
每人邊際產出為 MPY∗=dy∗dk∗=αAk∗α−1MPY^* = \frac{dy^*}{dk^*} = \alpha A k^{*\alpha-1}。
因此,黃金律條件為:(1−τ)MPY∗=d+n(1-\tau) MPY^* = d+n。

我們需要將此條件與外生參數聯繫起來。
由穩態條件 (k∗)α−1=s(1−τ)An+d(k^*)^{\alpha-1} = \frac{s(1-\tau) A}{n+d},我們知道 s(1−τ)=n+dA(k∗)α−1s(1-\tau) = \frac{n+d}{A (k^*)^{\alpha-1}}。
將黃金律條件 (1−τ)Aα(k∗)α−1=d+n(1-\tau) A \alpha (k^*)^{\alpha-1} = d+n 代入。
我們將黃金律條件寫成 αA(k∗)α−1=d+n1−τ\alpha A (k^*)^{\alpha-1} = \frac{d+n}{1-\tau}。

現在我們看穩態時的投資 i∗=s(1−τ)y∗=s(1−τ)Ak∗αi^* = s(1-\tau) y^* = s(1-\tau) A k^{*\alpha}。
在穩態時,資本存量不變,意味著總投資必須等於總折舊加上因人口成長而新增的資本。
I∗=dK∗+nK∗I^* = dK^* + nK^*
i∗L∗=(d+n)k∗L∗i^* L^* = (d+n) k^* L^*
i∗=(d+n)k∗i^* = (d+n) k^*

黃金律條件是最大化 c∗c^*,而 c∗=y∗−i∗−g∗c^* = y^* - i^* - g^*。
c∗=y∗−(d+n)k∗−τy∗c^* = y^* - (d+n)k^* - \tau y^*

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第 2 題

Let Y and r denote output and the real interest rate, respectively, in a Keynesian closed economy with the following specifications:

Desired consumption: Cd=10+0.8(Y−T)−30rC^d = 10 + 0.8(Y - T) - 30r
Desired investment: Id=40−20rI^d = 40 - 20r
Government purchases: G=30G = 30
Taxes: T=40T = 40
Full-employment (FE) output: Yˉ=182.5\bar{Y} = 182.5
Nominal money supply: M=600M = 600
Real money demand: L=20+0.8Y−200(r+πe)L = 20 + 0.8Y - 200(r + \pi^e)
Expected inflation rate: πe=0.1\pi^e = 0.1

(1) Derive the IS equation, the LM equation, and the AD equation for this economy. (5%)
(2) Suppose that the price level is fixed at P = 5 in the short run. Compute the short-run equilibrium values of output, the real interest rate, consumption, and investment, and illustrate the short-run equilibrium in an IS-LM-FE diagram. Then determine the long-run equilibrium values of output, the real interest rate, consumption, investment, and the price level, and illustrate the long-run equilibrium in the same diagram. Explain briefly how the economy moves from the short-run equilibrium to the long-run equilibrium. (10%)
(3) Suppose the government aims to restore the economy to its long-run equilibrium, where Y = 182.5, while the price level remains fixed at P = 5. For each of the following policy scenarios, compute the required policy value separately and illustrate your answers in the IS-LM-FE diagram. (15%)
a. With M = 600 and T = 40 unchanged, what level of government purchases (G) is required?
b. With M = 600 and G = 30 unchanged, what level of taxes (T) is required?
c. With T = 40 and G = 30 unchanged, what level of nominal money supply (M) is required?

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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念

本題考查經典的 IS-LM-FE 模型與總合供需(AD-AS)分析架構,涵蓋以下關鍵觀念與公式:

  1. 商品市場均衡(IS 曲線):封閉經濟體系下,總產出等於總支出(Y=Cd+Id+GY = C^d + I^d + G)或意願儲蓄等於意願投資(Sd=IdS^d = I^d)。實質利率與實質產出呈現反向變動關係。
  2. 貨幣市場均衡(LM 曲線):實質貨幣供給等於實質貨幣需求(MP=L(Y,r+πe)\frac{M}{P} = L(Y, r + \pi^e)),其中名目利率為 i=r+πei = r + \pi^e(費雪方程式)。實質利率與實質產出呈現正向變動關係。
  3. 總合需求曲線(AD 曲線):結合 IS 曲線與 LM 曲線,消除利率變數 rr 後,所得出物價水準 PP 與產出 YY 之間的負向關係式。
  4. 短期均衡 vs. 長期均衡(IS-LM-FE 模型):
    • 短期(Short Run):假定物價僵固(Price Stickiness),短期均衡產出由 IS 與 LM 曲線之交點決定,此時產出可能偏離充分就業產出(Yˉ\bar{Y})。
    • 長期(Long Run):物價具完全伸縮性(Price Flexibility)。若短期產出低於充分就業水準(存在緊縮缺口),物價將會下跌,帶動實質貨幣供給增加,使 LM 曲線向右下方移動,直至 IS、LM 與 FE 垂直線交於同一點為止。
  5. 總體經濟穩定政策(財政政策與貨幣政策):在短期物價固定下,政府可透過擴張性財政政策(增加 GG 或減稅 TT)使 IS 曲線右移,或透過擴張性貨幣政策(增加 MM)使 LM 曲線右移,藉以在短期直接消除產出缺口、恢復充分就業。

解題方法與逐步推導

第 (1) 小題:導出 IS、LM 與 AD 曲線方程式

  1. 推導 IS 曲線方程式:
    商品市場均衡條件為:

    Y=Cd+Id+GY = C^d + I^d + G

    將題目給定之各項函數代入:

    Y=[10+0.8(Y−40)−30r]+(40−20r)+30Y = [10 + 0.8(Y - 40) - 30r] + (40 - 20r) + 30

    整理各項常數與變數:

    Y=10+0.8Y−32−30r+40−20r+30Y = 10 + 0.8Y - 32 - 30r + 40 - 20r + 30 Y=48+0.8Y−50rY = 48 + 0.8Y - 50r 0.2Y=48−50r⟹Y=240−250r0.2Y = 48 - 50r \quad \Longrightarrow \quad Y = 240 - 250r

    亦可表示為反函數形式:

    r=0.96−0.004Yr = 0.96 - 0.004Y
  2. 推導 LM 曲線方程式:
    貨幣市場均衡條件為:

    MP=L=20+0.8Y−200(r+πe)\frac{M}{P} = L = 20 + 0.8Y - 200(r + \pi^e)

    代入 πe=0.1\pi^e = 0.1:

    MP=20+0.8Y−200r−20=0.8Y−200r\frac{M}{P} = 20 + 0.8Y - 200r - 20 = 0.8Y - 200r

    整理可得實質利率 rr 或產出 YY 之表示式:

    200r=0.8Y−MP⟹r=0.004Y−M200P200r = 0.8Y - \frac{M}{P} \quad \Longrightarrow \quad r = 0.004Y - \frac{M}{200P}

    或產出表示式:

    Y=250r+1.25(MP)Y = 250r + 1.25\left(\frac{M}{P}\right)
  3. 推導 AD 曲線方程式:
    聯立 IS 與 LM 曲線方程式,消除實質利率 rr。
    由 IS 曲線得:

    250r=240−Y250r = 240 - Y

    將 250r250r 代入 LM 曲線式 Y=250r+1.25(MP)Y = 250r + 1.25\left(\frac{M}{P}\right):

    Y=(240−Y)+1.25(MP)Y = (240 - Y) + 1.25\left(\frac{M}{P}\right) 2Y=240+1.25(MP)2Y = 240 + 1.25\left(\frac{M}{P}\right)

    代入名目貨幣供給量 M=600M = 600:

    2Y=240+1.25(600P)=240+750P2Y = 240 + 1.25\left(\frac{600}{P}\right) = 240 + \frac{750}{P}

    兩邊同除以 2:

    Y=120+375PY = 120 + \frac{375}{P}

第 (2) 小題:短期均衡、長期均衡與調整機制

  1. 短期均衡計算(Short-Run Equilibrium, P=5P = 5):
    將 P=5P = 5 代入 AD 曲線:

    YSR=120+3755=120+75=195Y_{SR} = 120 + \frac{375}{5} = 120 + 75 = 195

    將 YSR=195Y_{SR} = 195 代入 IS 曲線求得實質利率:

    195=240−250rSR⟹250rSR=45⟹rSR=45250=0.18(18%)195 = 240 - 250r_{SR} \quad \Longrightarrow \quad 250r_{SR} = 45 \quad \Longrightarrow \quad r_{SR} = \frac{45}{250} = 0.18 \quad (18\%)

    計算消費 CSRC_{SR} 與投資 ISRI_{SR}:

    CSR=10+0.8(195−40)−30(0.18)=10+0.8(155)−5.4=10+124−5.4=128.6C_{SR} = 10 + 0.8(195 - 40) - 30(0.18) = 10 + 0.8(155) - 5.4 = 10 + 124 - 5.4 = 128.6 ISR=40−20(0.18)=40−3.6=36.4I_{SR} = 40 - 20(0.18) = 40 - 3.6 = 36.4

    驗算商品市場恆等式:C+I+G=128.6+36.4+30=195=YSRC + I + G = 128.6 + 36.4 + 30 = 195 = Y_{SR},結果相符。

  2. 長期均衡計算(Long-Run Equilibrium):
    在長期,產出必定回歸充分就業水準:

    YLR=Yˉ=182.5Y_{LR} = \bar{Y} = 182.5

    將 YLR=182.5Y_{LR} = 182.5 代入 IS 曲線求得長期實質利率:

    182.5=240−250rLR⟹250rLR=57.5⟹rLR=57.5250=0.23(23%)182.5 = 240 - 250r_{LR} \quad \Longrightarrow \quad 250r_{LR} = 57.5 \quad \Longrightarrow \quad r_{LR} = \frac{57.5}{250} = 0.23 \quad (23\%)

    計算長期消費 CLRC_{LR} 與長期投資 ILRI_{LR}:

    CLR=10+0.8(182.5−40)−30(0.23)=10+0.8(142.5)−6.9=10+114−6.9=117.1C_{LR} = 10 + 0.8(182.5 - 40) - 30(0.23) = 10 + 0.8(142.5) - 6.9 = 10 + 114 - 6.9 = 117.1 ILR=40−20(0.23)=40−4.6=35.4I_{LR} = 40 - 20(0.23) = 40 - 4.6 = 35.4

    驗算:C+I+G=117.1+35.4+30=182.5=YLRC + I + G = 117.1 + 35.4 + 30 = 182.5 = Y_{LR}。

    將 Y=182.5Y = 182.5 代入 AD 曲線求解長期物價水準 PLRP_{LR}:

    182.5=120+375PLR⟹62.5=375PLR⟹PLR=37562.5=6182.5 = 120 + \frac{375}{P_{LR}} \quad \Longrightarrow \quad 62.5 = \frac{375}{P_{LR}} \quad \Longrightarrow \quad P_{LR} = \frac{375}{62.5} = 6
  3. 由短期過渡至長期的動態調整機制說明:

    • 產出缺口性質:在短期均衡點,實質產出 YSR=195Y_{SR} = 195 高於充分就業產出 Yˉ=182.5\bar{Y} = 182.5,市場存在「膨脹缺口」(Inflationary Gap),代表勞動與要素市場處於過度就業的超額需求狀態。
    • 調整歷程:隨著時間推移,過度的要素需求促使名目工資與投入成本上升,廠商開始調高產品售價,物價水準自 P=5P = 5 逐漸上漲至 P=6P = 6。
    • 圖形調整路徑:物價上漲使實質貨幣供給 MP\frac{M}{P} 下降(由 6005=120\frac{600}{5} = 120 降至 6006=100\frac{600}{6} = 100),導致 LM 曲線向左上方移動(自 LM(P=5)LM(P=5) 移至 LM(P=6)LM(P=6))。在貨幣市場緊縮下,實質利率由 r=0.18r = 0.18 上升至 r=0.23r = 0.23,進而抑制意願投資與消費支出,總產出沿著原 IS 曲線縮減,最終經濟體穩定於 IS、LM 與垂直的 FE 曲線之三線交點,恢復長期充分就業均衡。
  4. IS-LM-FE 均衡圖示:

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第 3 題

Consider the following two-period problem. The utility function is u(c1)+βE[u(c2)]u(c_1) + \beta E[u(c_2)] with u′>0,u′′<0u' > 0, u'' < 0, where β∈(0,1)\beta \in (0,1) is the discount factor, ctc_t is consumption in period t, t=1,2t = 1,2. The budget constraints are
c1+a2=ωc_1 + a_2 = \omega
and
c2=x+a2(1+r)c_2 = x + a_2(1 + r),
where rr is the net real interest rate, a2a_2 is net savings at the end of period 1, ω\omega is a deterministic endowment, and xx is a random variable that takes value ω+σ\omega + \sigma with probability 0.5 and ω−σ\omega - \sigma with probability 0.5, with ω≥σ≥0\omega \ge \sigma \ge 0.

(1) First consider the case where σ=0\sigma = 0. Derive the Euler equation (i.e., the optimality condition representing the trade-off between c1c_1 and c2c_2). Explain the economic intuition of this condition in words. (8%)
(2) Assume that the net interest rate rr satisfies β(1+r)=1\beta(1 + r) = 1. What is the optimal saving a2a_2? Show your mathematical derivation. (6%)
(3) Suppose that β(1+r)=1\beta(1 + r) = 1 still holds. Now consider a small but positive value for σ\sigma. Under what condition on uu do we get positive optimal savings a2>0a_2 > 0? (6%)

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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念

本題考查兩期消費—儲蓄模型與 Euler equation。核心權衡為:

  • 本期多儲蓄 11,會使本期消費減少 11;
  • 下一期可增加消費 1+r1+r;
  • 消費的邊際效用具有遞減性,且不確定性可能產生預防性儲蓄。

效用函數為

u(c1)+βE[u(c2)].u(c_1)+\beta E[u(c_2)].

其中 u′(c)>0u'(c)>0、u′′(c)<0u''(c)<0,表示消費越多效用越高,但邊際效用遞減。


(1)σ=0\sigma=0 時的 Euler 方程式

當 σ=0\sigma=0 時,

x=ω.x=\omega.

由預算限制式:

c1=ω−a2,c_1=\omega-a_2, c2=ω+(1+r)a2.c_2=\omega+(1+r)a_2.

因此,代表性消費者選擇 a2a_2 最大化:

V(a2)=u(ω−a2)+βu(ω+(1+r)a2).V(a_2) = u(\omega-a_2) + \beta u\bigl(\omega+(1+r)a_2\bigr).

對 a2a_2 微分:

dVda2=−u′(c1)+β(1+r)u′(c2).\frac{dV}{da_2} = -u'(c_1) + \beta(1+r)u'(c_2).

內部最適解須滿足一階條件:

−u′(c1)+β(1+r)u′(c2)=0.-u'(c_1)+\beta(1+r)u'(c_2)=0.

故 Euler 方程式為

u′(c1)=β(1+r)u′(c2).\boxed{u'(c_1)=\beta(1+r)u'(c_2)}.

也可寫成:

u′(c1)u′(c2)=β(1+r).\boxed{\frac{u'(c_1)}{u'(c_2)}=\beta(1+r)}.

經濟直覺

增加 a2a_2 一單位時:

  • 當期消費減少 11,造成效用損失 u′(c1)u'(c_1);
  • 下一期消費增加 1+r1+r,帶來折現後的效用利益 β(1+r)u′(c2)\beta(1+r)u'(c_2)。

最適狀態下,兩者必須相等:

當期少消費一單位的效用損失=下一期多消費的折現效用利益.\text{當期少消費一單位的效用損失} = \text{下一期多消費的折現效用利益}.

若 β(1+r)u′(c2)>u′(c1)\beta(1+r)u'(c_2)>u'(c_1),代表延後消費較有利,應增加儲蓄;若反向成立,則應減少儲蓄、提高當期消費。


(2)當 β(1+r)=1\beta(1+r)=1 時的最適儲蓄

由(1)的 Euler 方程式:

u′(c1)=β(1+r)u′(c2).u'(c_1)=\beta(1+r)u'(c_2).

代入 β(1+r)=1\beta(1+r)=1:

u′(c1)=u′(c2).u'(c_1)=u'(c_2).

因為 u′′<0u''<0,所以 u′u' 嚴格遞減,邊際效用相等必然表示:

c1=c2.c_1=c_2.

在 σ=0\sigma=0 時,兩期消費為:

c1=ω−a2,c_1=\omega-a_2, c2=ω+(1+r)a2.c_2=\omega+(1+r)a_2.

令兩期消費相等:

ω−a2=ω+(1+r)a2.\omega-a_2 = \omega+(1+r)a_2.

整理得:

−a2=(1+r)a2,-a_2=(1+r)a_2, −(2+r)a2=0.-(2+r)a_2=0.

只要 r>−1r>-1,即可得到:

a2∗=0.\boxed{a_2^*=0}.

此時:

c1∗=c2∗=ω.c_1^*=c_2^*=\omega.

經濟直覺

當 β(1+r)=1\beta(1+r)=1 時,儲蓄所帶來的下一期報酬,經過時間折現後,恰好等於本期消費的效用價值。因此在沒有所得風險時,消費者選擇平滑消費:

c1=c2.c_1=c_2.

由於兩期的確定性所得都等於 ω\omega,不需要透過儲蓄移轉消費,故最適儲蓄為零。


(3)β(1+r)=1\beta(1+r)=1 且 σ>0\sigma>0 時的正儲蓄條件

此時下一期所得為:

x={ω+σ,機率 0.5,ω−σ,機率 0.5.x= \begin{cases} \omega+\sigma, & \text{機率 }0.5,\\ \omega-\sigma, & \text{機率 }0.5. \end{cases}
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第 4 題

Consider the following two-period problem. The representative household utility function is
u(c1)+βlog⁡(c2)u(c_1) + \beta \log(c_2),
where β∈(0,1)\beta \in (0,1) is the discount factor, ctc_t is consumption in period t, ∀t=1,2\forall t = 1, 2.
The budget constraints are
c1+a2=y1c_1 + a_2 = y_1
and
c2=y2+a2(1+r)c_2 = y_2 + a_2(1+r),
where rr is the exogenous net real interest rate, a2a_2 is net savings at the end of period 1, and yty_t is a
deterministic endowment at period t, t=1,2t = 1, 2. The household faces a financial constraint:
a2≥−la_2 \ge -l,
where l≥0l \ge 0 represents the exogenous credit limit.

(1) Define λ\lambda as the Lagrangian multiplier of the financial constraint. Formulate the Lagrangian equation and derive the intertemporal Euler equation. Express the condition in terms of c1c_1, c2c_2 and λ\lambda. Please ensure that your representation always implies λ≥0\lambda \ge 0. (8%)
(Hint: You can define other Lagrangian multipliers if necessary)
(2) Using your result from question 1, eliminate λ\lambda and rewrite the condition as a weak inequality. Why does the constrained household's optimal condition hold with strict inequality? Explain economic intuition in words. (8%)
(Note: You will not receive points if you merely explain the mathematical equation in words)
(3) Given y1y_1 and ll, derive the condition on y2y_2 under which households are unconstrained or constrained. You must specify the threshold of y2y_2 (denoted as y^2\hat{y}_2) that separates constrained and unconstrained households as a function of (β,r,y1,l)(\beta, r, y_1, l) in the condition. Show your mathematical derivation. (8%)
(4) Determine whether the following statement is true or false. If true, please prove it; if false, please disprove or provide a counter-example. (6%)
"If borrowing requires no interest payment (i.e., r=0r = 0), the household always borrows to the limit with any combination of (y1,y2,l)⊂R3(y_1, y_2, l) \subset \mathbb{R}^3.”

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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念

本題考察兩期消費—儲蓄模型中的「借款限制」如何扭曲跨期消費配置。

家庭可透過第一期儲蓄 a2a_2 將所得移轉至第二期;若 a2<0a_2<0,代表借款。限制式

a2≥−la_2\ge -l

表示家庭最多只能借 ll。無借款限制時,家庭依跨期 Euler equation 配置消費;若家庭想借得更多卻遭限制,第一期消費相對不足、第二期消費相對過多,因此 Euler equation 會由等號改為嚴格不等號。

以下假設 u(c1)u(c_1) 可微、嚴格遞增且嚴格凹,並且可行解滿足 c1>0c_1>0、c2>0c_2>0。

(1)拉格朗日式與跨期 Euler equation

解題方法

將兩個預算限制與借款限制同時納入拉格朗日式。令 μ1\mu_1、μ2\mu_2 分別為兩期預算限制的乘數,並將借款限制寫成 a2+l≥0a_2+l\ge0,令其乘數為 λ≥0\lambda\ge0。

拉格朗日式

L=u(c1)+βlog⁡(c2)+μ1(y1−c1−a2)+μ2[y2+(1+r)a2−c2]+λ(a2+l)\mathcal{L} = u(c_1)+\beta\log(c_2) +\mu_1(y_1-c_1-a_2) +\mu_2[y_2+(1+r)a_2-c_2] +\lambda(a_2+l)

其中:

λ≥0,a2+l≥0,λ(a2+l)=0\lambda\ge0,\qquad a_2+l\ge0,\qquad \lambda(a_2+l)=0

一階條件為:

∂L∂c1=u′(c1)−μ1=0\frac{\partial\mathcal{L}}{\partial c_1} = u'(c_1)-\mu_1=0 ∂L∂c2=βc2−μ2=0\frac{\partial\mathcal{L}}{\partial c_2} = \frac{\beta}{c_2}-\mu_2=0 ∂L∂a2=−μ1+(1+r)μ2+λ=0\frac{\partial\mathcal{L}}{\partial a_2} = -\mu_1+(1+r)\mu_2+\lambda=0

由前兩式可得:

μ1=u′(c1)\mu_1=u'(c_1) μ2=βc2\mu_2=\frac{\beta}{c_2}

代入 a2a_2 的一階條件:

u′(c1)=β(1+r)c2+λu'(c_1) = \frac{\beta(1+r)}{c_2} +\lambda

且必須搭配:

λ≥0,λ(a2+l)=0\lambda\ge0,\qquad \lambda(a_2+l)=0

(2)消去 λ\lambda 後的不等式與經濟意涵

由於 λ≥0\lambda\ge0,可由 Euler equation 得到:

u′(c1)≥β(1+r)c2u'(c_1)\ge\frac{\beta(1+r)}{c_2}

若家庭未受借款限制,則 a2>−la_2>-l,互補鬆弛條件使得 λ=0\lambda=0,因此:

u′(c1)=β(1+r)c2u'(c_1) = \frac{\beta(1+r)}{c_2}

若家庭確實受借款限制,則:

a2=−la_2=-l

而且家庭原本希望借得更多,故限制具有經濟上的約束力,λ>0\lambda>0。因此:

u′(c1)>β(1+r)c2u'(c_1) > \frac{\beta(1+r)}{c_2}

經濟意涵

左邊 u′(c1)u'(c_1) 是多增加一單位第一期消費的邊際效用;右邊 β(1+r)/c2\beta(1+r)/c_2 是少儲蓄一單位、因而減少未來消費 (1+r)(1+r) 單位所造成的折現邊際效用損失。

受借款限制的家庭,第一期資源不足,想要把更多未來所得移轉到現在消費,也就是想進一步借款。然而,家庭已達借款上限 a2=−la_2=-l,無法再降低 a2a_2。因此,第一期消費的邊際效用仍高於犧牲未來消費的成本;家庭不是不想調整,而是無法調整,故最適條件呈現嚴格不等號。

(3)判斷家庭是否受借款限制的 y2y_2 門檻

解題方法

若家庭剛好借至上限,則:

a2=−la_2=-l

由預算限制可得邊界上的消費組合:

c1=y1+lc_1=y_1+l c2=y2−(1+r)lc_2=y_2-(1+r)l

在借款上限處,判斷家庭是否還想進一步借款。若第一期消費的邊際效用大於犧牲第二期消費的折現邊際效用,家庭便想增加借款,因而受限制。

將邊界消費代入第(2)題的不等式:

u′(y1+l)≥β(1+r)y2−(1+r)lu'(y_1+l) \ge \frac{\beta(1+r)}{y_2-(1+r)l}
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