108 年 國立臺北大學財政學系碩士班《經濟學(含個體經濟學、總體經濟學)》

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第 1 題15 分

若在開放的經濟體系下,大國提高對進口產品課徵的關稅,將會對該國的儲蓄以及投資有何影響?對小國而言,利率、儲蓄以及投資又會有何影響?請詳細分析。

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這一題的完整詳解

此題主要考查開放經濟體系下,關稅政策對國內儲蓄、投資及利率的影響,需要區分大國與小國的情況進行分析。

核心觀念:

  • 大國 (Large Country): 由於其貿易量占全球比例大,對國際市場價格有影響力。
  • 小國 (Small Country): 國際市場價格對其而言是外生的,無法影響。
  • 關稅 (Tariff): 是一種貿易壁壘,會影響國內商品價格。
  • IS-LM 模型與開放經濟體系: 考量國際資本移動與商品移動對國內總體經濟的影響。

大國分析:
假設大國實施進口關稅,這會導致國內進口品的價格上漲。

  1. 對國內的影響:
    • 價格與總體需求: 進口品價格上漲,可能導致國內替代品價格也隨之上漲,進而影響國內的總體需求。然而,更直接的影響是貿易條件的改善。
    • 貿易條件 (Terms of Trade): 由於是「大國」,課徵進口關稅會使其貿易條件改善。也就是說,出口品相對價格上升,進口品相對價格下降(相對於國內課徵關稅前的匯率)。這意味著,出口收入增加,可以用較少的出口換取相同數量的進口。
    • 國民所得 (National Income): 貿易條件的改善會增加國民所得。
    • 儲蓄 (Saving, S): 在消費-儲蓄決策中,國民所得增加通常會導致儲蓄增加。
    • 投資 (Investment, I): 利率是投資決策的關鍵。關稅本身不直接影響邊際投資產出率 (MPK) 或資本的邊際效益。然而,如果我們考慮 IS-LM 模型,當貿易條件改善導致國民所得增加時,LM 曲線會向右移動(因為貨幣需求增加,但在此模型下,更直接的影響是 IS 曲線的變動)。在開放經濟體系下,利率的變動會受國際資本移動影響。
    • 利率 (Interest Rate): 關稅導致的國民所得增加會增加對貨幣的需求。同時,由於貿易條件改善,國民所得增加,可能導致儲蓄增加。在開放經濟體系下,利率主要由國際利率決定(假設資本完全移動)。然而,若考慮到關稅對國內商品市場的影響,以及對國民所得的直接提振,IS 曲線會向右移動。在 LM 曲線不變的情況下,利率會上升。但若考慮國際資本完全移動,利率應趨向國際利率。
      • 更精確的分析 (IS-LM-BP 模型): 在開放經濟體系下,若匯率是浮動的,大國課徵進口關稅,會改善其貿易條件,IS 曲線右移。同時,國民所得增加,貨幣需求增加,LM 曲線右移。在 LM 曲線不變的情況下,利率會上升。然而,由於利率上升,會吸引國際資本流入,導致本國貨幣升值。貨幣升值會抵銷部分關稅對進口品價格的影響,並不利於出口。
      • 一般情況下的標準模型: 貿易條件改善,國民所得增加,預期儲蓄增加。對於投資,利率的決定是關鍵。在完全資本移動下,利率由國際利率決定。
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第 2 題10 分

試以 IS-LM 及 AD-AS 模型說明貨幣中立性理論。

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這一題的完整詳解

貨幣中立性理論 (Monetary Neutrality) 是貨幣學派 (Monetarism) 的核心觀點之一,認為貨幣數量的變動長期而言只會影響名目變數 (nominal variables),而對實質變數 (real variables) 沒有影響。

核心觀念:

  • 名目變數 (Nominal Variables): 以貨幣單位衡量的變數,如物價水準 (Price Level, P)、名目工資 (Nominal Wage)、名目利率 (Nominal Interest Rate) 等。
  • 實質變數 (Real Variables): 以實質商品或服務衡量的變數,如實質產出 (Real Output, Y)、實質工資 (Real Wage)、實質利率 (Real Interest Rate) 等。
  • 貨幣供給變動: 中央銀行調整貨幣供給的行為。

模型說明:

  1. IS-LM 模型:
    • IS 曲線: 代表商品市場均衡,描述實質利率 (r) 與實質產出 (Y) 之間的負向關係。
    • LM 曲線: 代表貨幣市場均衡,描述實質利率 (r) 與實質產出 (Y) 之間的關係,通常是正向關係(但若考慮貨幣供給變動,LM 曲線會移動)。
    • 貨幣供給變動的影響 (短期):
      • 若中央銀行增加貨幣供給 (M↑),LM 曲線會向右移動。
      • 結果:在短期內,實質利率 (r) 下降,實質產出 (Y) 增加。物價水準 (P) 可能會上漲,但短期內 P 的變動較不明顯或具黏性。
    • 貨幣中立性 (長期):
      • 根據貨幣中立性理論,長期而言,實質產出 (Y) 和實質利率 (r) 不會受到貨幣供給變動的影響。
      • 當貨幣供給增加時,短期內 LM 右移導致 Y↑, r↓。然而,物價水準 (P) 會開始上漲。
      • 隨著物價上漲,實質貨幣供給 (M/PM/P) 實際上會下降。
      • LM 曲線會因為 M/PM/P 的下降而向左移動,直到回到原來的均衡點。
      • 最終結果:實質產出 (Y) 回到其自然產出水準 (natural rate of output),實質利率 (r) 也回到原來的水平。
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第 3 題10 分

Use a two-period model to explain Ricardian equivalence proposition. What will happen to consumption and saving decisions of individuals, when the interest rate in the financial market is not stable?

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這一題的完整詳解

核心觀念

本題考兩個重點:

  1. 李嘉圖等價定理(Ricardian equivalence proposition):政府以發行公債減稅,只是改變課稅時間,不改變政府跨期預算限制,因此理性且具前瞻性的家庭會增加私人儲蓄,以因應未來增加的租稅,消費與國民儲蓄不變。
  2. 利率變動下的跨期消費選擇:家庭會依據市場利率與利率風險,調整當期消費、未來消費及儲蓄。

解題方法:建立兩期模型

假設經濟只有兩期:

  • 第一期所得為 Y1Y_1,消費為 C1C_1,租稅為 T1T_1。
  • 第二期所得為 Y2Y_2,消費為 C2C_2,租稅為 T2T_2。
  • 市場利率為 rr。
  • 家庭可透過儲蓄 SS 移轉購買力。

家庭第一期的預算限制為

C1+S=Y1−T1C_1+S=Y_1-T_1

第二期的預算限制為

C2=Y2−T2+(1+r)SC_2=Y_2-T_2+(1+r)S

由第一式得

S=Y1−T1−C1S=Y_1-T_1-C_1

代入第二式:

C2=Y2−T2+(1+r)(Y1−T1−C1)C_2=Y_2-T_2+(1+r)(Y_1-T_1-C_1)

整理後,家庭的跨期預算限制為

C1+C21+r=Y1−T1+Y2−T21+rC_1+\frac{C_2}{1+r} = Y_1-T_1+\frac{Y_2-T_2}{1+r}

這表示家庭消費的現值,等於稅後所得的現值。


李嘉圖等價定理的推導

情況一:政府以租稅支應支出

政府若在第一期直接課徵租稅 T1T_1,家庭可支配所得為

Y1−T1Y_1-T_1

家庭依此決定消費與儲蓄。

情況二:政府以公債融通減稅

政府改為第一期減稅 BB,並發行面額為 BB 的公債:

T1′=T1−BT_1'=T_1-B

政府在第二期必須償還本金與利息,因此第二期租稅增加為

T2′=T2+(1+r)BT_2'=T_2+(1+r)B

此時家庭的稅後所得現值為

Y1−(T1−B)+Y2−[T2+(1+r)B]1+rY_1-(T_1-B) + \frac{Y_2-[T_2+(1+r)B]}{1+r}

整理:

Y1−T1+B+Y2−T21+r−BY_1-T_1+B+\frac{Y_2-T_2}{1+r}-B

因此

Y1−T1+Y2−T21+rY_1-T_1+\frac{Y_2-T_2}{1+r}

與原先完全相同。

由於家庭的跨期預算限制沒有改變,若家庭具有理性預期,且知道政府今日的減稅必須由未來租稅償還,家庭便不會把公債視為真正的財富增加。

第一期減稅所增加的可支配所得 BB,會被家庭儲蓄起來:

ΔSprivate=B\Delta S_{\text{private}}=B

同時,政府預算赤字增加 BB,政府儲蓄減少:

ΔSpublic=−B\Delta S_{\text{public}}=-B

所以國民儲蓄變化為

ΔSnational=ΔSprivate+ΔSpublic=B−B=0\Delta S_{\text{national}} = \Delta S_{\text{private}} + \Delta S_{\text{public}} = B-B=0

因此:

  • 家庭消費不變。
  • 私人儲蓄增加。
  • 政府儲蓄減少。
  • 國民儲蓄不變。
  • 利率與投資不因租稅時間改變而變動。

這就是李嘉圖等價。


李嘉圖等價成立的必要條件

李嘉圖等價並非任何情況都成立,通常需要下列假設:

  1. 家庭具有理性預期,能預見未來租稅負擔。
  2. 租稅屬於一次總付稅(lump-sum tax),不扭曲工作與投資決策。
  3. 家庭能自由借貸與儲蓄,不受流動性限制。
  4. 家庭具有足夠長的規劃期間,重視後代福利。
  5. 金融市場資本完全,家庭與政府面對相同的利率。
  6. 政府支出不因融資方式改變。
  7. 公債最終確實由未來租稅償還。

只要上述條件遭到破壞,公債便可能被家庭視為部分財富,減稅也會改變當期消費。


利率不穩定時的消費與儲蓄決策

一、利率為確定但會變動的情況

家庭的效用函數可寫為

U=u(C1)+βu(C2)U=u(C_1)+\beta u(C_2)

其中 β\beta 為時間偏好因子。家庭最大化效用後,得到跨期最適條件:

u′(C1)=β(1+r)u′(C2)u'(C_1)=\beta(1+r)u'(C_2)

這就是 Euler equation。

若利率上升,延後一單位消費的報酬提高,因此家庭會產生:

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第 4 題15 分

Suppose that B country is the main trading partner of A country and A country undertakes an expansionary monetary policy, what is the effect of A's expansionary monetary policy on A's and B's real exchange rate, nominal exchange rate, interest rate, output, price level in the short run and long run, assuming no change in B's policies? Please use the Keynesian IS-LM model with flexible exchange rates to explain.

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這一題的完整詳解

This question asks to analyze the effects of an expansionary monetary policy in country A on both country A and country B, using the Keynesian IS-LM model with flexible exchange rates.

Core Concepts:

  • Expansionary Monetary Policy: Central bank increases the money supply, typically lowering interest rates.
  • IS-LM Model: Represents the goods market (IS) and money market (LM) equilibrium.
  • Flexible Exchange Rates: The value of a country's currency is determined by supply and demand in the foreign exchange market.
  • Mundell-Fleming Model: The IS-LM model under open economy conditions with capital mobility. This is what is implied by "Keynesian IS-LM model with flexible exchange rates."
  • Real Exchange Rate (RER): The relative price of domestic goods in terms of foreign goods. RER=S×P∗PRER = S \times \frac{P^*}{P}, where SS is the nominal exchange rate (domestic currency per unit of foreign currency), P∗P^* is the foreign price level, and PP is the domestic price level.
  • Nominal Exchange Rate (NER): The price of one currency in terms of another. Let SS be the nominal exchange rate (units of A's currency per unit of B's currency). An increase in SS means A's currency depreciates.
  • Capital Mobility: Assumed to be high in the Mundell-Fleming model.

Model Setup:

  • Country A: Uses IS-LM model. Expansionary monetary policy means the LM curve shifts to the right.
  • Country B: Assume B is a major trading partner, but its policies remain unchanged. B's economy is affected by A's actions through trade and exchange rates.
  • Flexible Exchange Rates: Changes in capital flows and trade balances will affect the nominal exchange rate SS.
  • Short Run vs. Long Run: We need to analyze immediate effects and adjustments over time.

Analysis for Country A:

Short Run:

  1. Monetary Expansion: A country A's central bank increases the money supply. This shifts the LM curve in A to the right.
  2. Interest Rate: The domestic interest rate (iAi_A) falls.
  3. Capital Outflow: Due to the lower interest rate in A compared to the world interest rate (or expected future rates), capital flows out of country A.
  4. Nominal Exchange Rate (NER): The capital outflow increases the supply of A's currency in the foreign exchange market, causing A's currency to depreciate. The nominal exchange rate SS (units of A's currency per unit of B's currency) increases.
  5. Real Exchange Rate (RER): RERA=S×PBPARER_A = S \times \frac{P_B}{P_A}. Since SS increases (A's currency depreciates) and assuming domestic price levels (PA,PBP_A, P_B) haven't changed significantly yet in the short run, the real exchange rate of A depreciates (becomes cheaper for foreigners).
  6. Net Exports (NX): A's depreciation makes its exports cheaper for foreigners and its imports more expensive for domestic residents. This leads to an increase in net exports.
  7. Aggregate Demand (AD): An increase in net exports shifts the IS curve in A to the right.
  8. Output (Y_A): The rightward shift of the IS curve, combined with the initial rightward shift of the LM curve, leads to a further increase in output (YAY_A). The final equilibrium will have higher output and a lower interest rate (compared to the initial LM shift before considering the exchange rate effect, but the exchange rate effect amplifies the output increase and may bring the interest rate back up slightly, or keep it lower).
  9. Price Level (P_A): The increase in aggregate demand and output puts upward pressure on the domestic price level (PAP_A).

Summary for Country A (Short Run):

  • Interest Rate (iAi_A): Falls initially, then may rise slightly due to increased demand for money from higher output, but generally remains lower than the initial level.
  • Nominal Exchange Rate (SS): Depreciates (increases).
  • Real Exchange Rate (RERARER_A): Depreciates.
  • Output (YAY_A): Increases.
  • Price Level (PAP_A): Increases.

Long Run:

  1. Inflation: The increase in output and price level in country A (PA↑P_A \uparrow) will eventually lead to higher expected inflation.
  2. Nominal Exchange Rate Adjustment: As PAP_A rises, the real exchange rate depreciation becomes less pronounced. If PAP_A rises proportionally more than SS increases, the RER could even appreciate. However, the Mundell-Fleming model often assumes that in the long run, the economy returns to full employment, and the price level fully adjusts to changes in the money supply. If the monetary expansion is permanent, it leads to sustained inflation.
  3. Return to Natural Rate of Output: In the long run, under flexible prices and wages, output returns to its natural rate (YA∗Y_A^*). The increased aggregate demand leads to inflation, which erodes the real money supply and shifts the LM curve back to the left.
  4. Interest Rate: The long-run equilibrium interest rate is determined by the real interest rate and expected inflation. If the real interest rate returns to its original level, the nominal interest rate will be higher due to increased expected inflation.
  5. Real Exchange Rate: In the long run, with flexible prices, the real exchange rate may return to its initial level if the real factors determining it (e.g., productivity, government spending) are unchanged. However, sustained inflation in A will lead to continued depreciation of the nominal exchange rate if the price level difference is not fully offset by nominal appreciation.
  6. Price Level: The price level in A (PAP_A) will be permanently higher due to the expansionary monetary policy.

Summary for Country A (Long Run):

  • Interest Rate (iAi_A): Nominal interest rate increases due to higher expected inflation. Real interest
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第 5 題15 分

請找兩個你喜歡的事物
(1) 以無異曲線與預算線的圖形來表示你的最佳選擇點。(4%)
(2) 分析在非最佳選擇點時,你為何想要調整至最佳點。(5%)
(3) 以數學方式,分析在最佳點時,無異曲線與預算線斜率的關係。(4%)

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這一題的完整詳解

此題為個體經濟學消費者理論的應用題,要求利用無異曲線與預算線分析消費者的選擇行為。

核心觀念:

  • 無異曲線 (Indifference Curve): 代表兩種商品組合,消費者對這些組合具有相同的效用或滿足程度。無異曲線凸向原點,斜率為負,且越高代表效用越高。
  • 預算線 (Budget Line): 代表在給定所得和商品價格下,消費者能夠購買的所有商品組合。其斜率為兩種商品價格的負比。
  • 最佳選擇點 (Optimal Choice): 消費者在預算線內,能夠獲得最高效用的組合。此點發生在無異曲線與預算線相切之處。
  • 邊際替代率 (Marginal Rate of Substitution, MRS): 無異曲線的斜率絕對值,代表消費者願意以多少數量的一種商品來交換另一種商品,同時保持效用不變。
  • 價格比 (Price Ratio): 預算線的斜率絕對值,代表市場上兩種商品交換的實際比率。

假設情境:
為了回答此題,我們需要假設兩種你喜歡的商品。假設這兩種商品是「披薩」(Pizza, P) 和「電影票」(Movie Ticket, M)。
假設你的每月所得為 II,披薩的價格為 PPP_P,電影票的價格為 PMP_M。
你的預算線方程式為:I=PP×P+PM×MI = P_P \times P + P_M \times M。
預算線的斜率為 −PP/PM-P_P / P_M。

(1) 以無異曲線與預算線的圖形來表示你的最佳選擇點。

  • 圖形繪製:

    • 繪製兩條軸:橫軸為披薩數量 (P),縱軸為電影票數量 (M)。
    • 繪製一條預算線:其斜率為 −PP/PM-P_P / P_M,並與兩軸相交於 I/PPI/P_P (P 軸截距) 和 I/PMI/P_M (M 軸截距)。
    • 繪製一系列無異曲線:這些曲線應凸向原點,且斜率絕對值(MRS)隨 P 增加而減少。
    • 最佳選擇點: 找到預算線與最高可能無異曲線相切的點。假設這個點是 (P∗,M∗)(P^*, M^*)。在這個點上,消費者同時消費 P∗P^* 個披薩和 M∗M^* 張電影票,以達到最大效用。
  • 圖示說明:

    • [在此處應繪製圖形,但以文字描述]
    • 圖中包含:橫軸 (披薩 P)、縱軸 (電影票 M)、一條預算線(斜率為 −PP/PM-P_P/P_M)、多條凸向原點的無異曲線(代表不同效用水平)。
    • 最佳選擇點為預算線與最高效用無異曲線相切的點 (P∗,M∗)(P^*, M^*)。

(2) 分析在非最佳選擇點時,你為何想要調整至最佳點。

消費者在非最佳選擇點時,其效用並非最大化。我們需要分析兩種情況:

  • 情況一:選擇點在預算線內 (Budget Line Inside)。

    • 假設消費者選擇了一個組合 (P,M)(P, M),但這個組合的總支出小於所得 (PP×P+PM×M<IP_P \times P + P_M \times M < I)。
    • 在這個點上,消費者可以增加對披薩或電影票(或兩者)的消費,而仍在預算線內,同時達到更高的無異曲線(更高的效用)。
    • 原因: 因為他還有剩餘的所得可以支配,增加消費可以提升效用。
  • 情況二:選擇點在預算線上,但未達切點 (Budget Line On, Not Tangency)。

    • 假設消費者選擇了一個組合 (P,M)(P, M),該組合在預算線上 (PP×P+PM×M=IP_P \times P + P_M \times M = I),但該點對應的無異曲線並非最高效用的那條。
    • 這通常發生在兩種情況:
      • MRS > 價格比 (MRS > PP/PMP_P/P_M): 在此點,無異曲線比預算線更陡峭(忽略負號)。這表示消費者願意為了獲得額外一份披薩,而放棄比市場價格所允許的更多的電影票。換句話說,他認為披薩對他來說相對更有價值,而電影票相對較不值錢。他會選擇增加披薩消費,減少電影票消費。
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第 6 題12 分

In an ultimatum game, there are 100 dollars for the proposer to allocate between her and the responder. Suppose that the proposer has the following two options. In the fair proposal, both get 50. In the selfish proposal, proposer and responder receive 49 and 1, respectively. If the responder accepts the proposal, they receive the amount according to the proposal. If responder rejects, both get zero.
(1) Solve it by the backward induction approach. (8%)
(2) It turns out that most responders reject the selfish proposal. Are they being irrational? (4%)

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這一題的完整詳解

This question deals with game theory, specifically the Ultimatum Game, and asks for an analysis using backward induction and a discussion on the rationality of responders' behavior.

Core Concepts:

  • Ultimatum Game: A sequential game where one player (proposer) proposes how to divide a sum of money, and the other player (responder) decides whether to accept or reject the offer. If accepted, the money is divided as proposed. If rejected, both players get nothing.
  • Backward Induction: A method of solving sequential games by starting from the end of the game and working backward to determine the optimal strategy at each stage.
  • Rationality: In economics, rationality typically means acting in a way that maximizes one's own utility (self-interest).
  • Fairness/Spite/Reciprocity: Factors that can influence decision-making beyond pure monetary gain, often observed in experimental settings.

Part 1: Backward Induction Approach

The game proceeds in two stages:

  • Stage 1: Proposer makes an offer.
  • Stage 2: Responder accepts or rejects.

We start by analyzing the responder's decision in Stage 2, as this determines the outcome for both players.

Responder's Decision (Stage 2):

The responder faces two possible offers from the proposer:

  • Offer 1: Fair Proposal

    • Proposer gets $50.
    • Responder gets $50.
    • If the responder accepts, they receive $50.
    • If the responder rejects, they receive $0.
    • Rational Responder's Choice: A purely rational responder, aiming to maximize their monetary payoff, will compare 5050 with 00. Since 50>050 > 0, the rational responder will accept the fair proposal.
  • Offer 2: Selfish Proposal

    • Proposer gets $49.
    • Responder gets $1.
    • If the responder accepts, they receive $1.
    • If the responder rejects, they receive $0.
    • Rational Responder's Choice: A purely rational responder will compare 11 with 00. Since 1>01 > 0, the rational responder will accept the selfish proposal.

Proposer's Decision (Stage 1):

The proposer knows that the responder is rational and will accept any offer greater than zero. Therefore, the proposer wants to maximize their own payoff, knowing the responder's acceptance strategy.

  • If the proposer offers the Fair Proposal: The responder accepts (gets 5050). The proposer gets 5050.

  • If the proposer offers the Selfish Proposal: The responder accepts (gets 11). The proposer gets 4949.

  • Proposer's Optimal Strategy: The proposer compares their payoff from each offer: 5050 (from Fair Proposal) vs. 4949 (from Selfish Proposal). Since 50>4950 > 49, the rational proposer will choose the Fair Proposal.

Outcome predicted by Backward Induction:
The proposer will offer the fair split (50,5050, 50), and the responder will accept.

Part 2: Irrationality of Responders

The question notes that "most responders reject the selfish proposal." This contradicts the prediction of pure rationality where the responder should accept any offer greater than zero (1>01 > 0).

  • Are they being irrational? From the strict definition of economic rationality (maximizing monetary payoff), yes, rejecting 1toget1 to get 0 could be considered irrational.

  • Alternative Explanations for Rejection (Why they might reject):

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第 7 題13 分

Suppose firm A and B face the following market demand and compete in quantity:
Q = 120 - P, where Q = QA + qв,
Marginal cost=0
(1) What are their optimal outputs? (5%)
(2) If they corporate, how much will their profits be? (4%)
(3) Suppose that there are unknown periods the two firms will compete. The probability of next period to continue is g. If one of the firms cheats, the two firms would not corporate in the future. Under which condition would two firms cooperate? (4%)

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這一題的完整詳解

This question analyzes a Cournot duopoly setting with a specific demand curve and zero marginal cost, then explores cooperation and repeated game dynamics.

Core Concepts:

  • Cournot Duopoly: Firms compete by simultaneously choosing quantities.
  • Market Demand: Q=120−PQ = 120 - P. This can be inverted to P=120−QP = 120 - Q, where Q=QA+QBQ = Q_A + Q_B.
  • Marginal Cost (MC): MC=0MC = 0 for both firms.
  • Profit Maximization: Firms maximize profit (π\pi) where Marginal Revenue (MR) equals Marginal Cost (MC). π=P×Q−MC×Q\pi = P \times Q - MC \times Q.
  • Reaction Function: A firm's profit-maximizing output as a function of the other firm's output.
  • Collusion/Cooperation: Firms acting together to achieve a joint profit-maximizing outcome, often by forming a cartel.
  • Repeated Games: Games played over multiple periods, where future payoffs can influence current decisions.
  • Folk Theorem: In infinitely repeated games, any feasible and individually rational payoff vector can be sustained as a subgame perfect Nash equilibrium if players are sufficiently patient.
  • Trigger Strategy: A strategy in repeated games where cooperation is maintained as long as the other player cooperates, but punishment (e.g., reverting to Cournot play) occurs if the other player defects.

Part 1: Optimal Outputs (Cournot Competition)

  1. Inverse Demand Function: P=120−(QA+QB)P = 120 - (Q_A + Q_B).

  2. Profit Functions:

    • Firm A's profit: πA=P×QA−MCA×QA=(120−QA−QB)QA−0×QA=120QA−QA2−QAQB\pi_A = P \times Q_A - MC_A \times Q_A = (120 - Q_A - Q_B)Q_A - 0 \times Q_A = 120Q_A - Q_A^2 - Q_A Q_B.
    • Firm B's profit: πB=P×QB−MCB×QB=(120−QA−QB)QB−0×QB=120QB−QB2−QAQB\pi_B = P \times Q_B - MC_B \times Q_B = (120 - Q_A - Q_B)Q_B - 0 \times Q_B = 120Q_B - Q_B^2 - Q_A Q_B.
  3. Reaction Functions: To find each firm's profit-maximizing output, we take the derivative of its profit function with respect to its own output and set it to zero.

    • Firm A:
      ∂πA∂QA=120−2QA−QB=0\frac{\partial \pi_A}{\partial Q_A} = 120 - 2Q_A - Q_B = 0
      2QA=120−QB2Q_A = 120 - Q_B
      QA=60−12QBQ_A = 60 - \frac{1}{2}Q_B (Firm A's Reaction Function)

    • Firm B:
      ∂πB∂QB=120−2QB−QA=0\frac{\partial \pi_B}{\partial Q_B} = 120 - 2Q_B - Q_A = 0
      2QB=120−QA2Q_B = 120 - Q_A
      QB=60−12QAQ_B = 60 - \frac{1}{2}Q_A (Firm B's Reaction Function)

  4. Cournot-Nash Equilibrium: Solve the reaction functions simultaneously.
    Substitute Firm B's reaction function into Firm A's:
    QA=60−12(60−12QA)Q_A = 60 - \frac{1}{2}(60 - \frac{1}{2}Q_A)
    QA=60−30+14QAQ_A = 60 - 30 + \frac{1}{4}Q_A
    QA=30+14QAQ_A = 30 + \frac{1}{4}Q_A
    QA−14QA=30Q_A - \frac{1}{4}Q_A = 30
    34QA=30\frac{3}{4}Q_A = 30
    QA=30×43=40Q_A = 30 \times \frac{4}{3} = 40.

    Now substitute QA=40Q_A = 40 back into Firm B's reaction function:
    QB=60−12(40)=60−20=40Q_B = 60 - \frac{1}{2}(40) = 60 - 20 = 40.

    So, in the Cournot-Nash equilibrium, QA=40Q_A = 40 and QB=40Q_B = 40.
    Total quantity Q=QA+QB=40+40=80Q = Q_A + Q_B = 40 + 40 = 80.
    Market Price P=120−Q=120−80=40P = 120 - Q = 120 - 80 = 40.

Optimal Outputs:

  • Firm A: QA=40Q_A = 40.
  • Firm B: QB=40Q_B = 40.

Part 2: Profits if they Cooperate

If firms cooperate, they form a cartel and act as a monopolist to maximize joint profits.

  1. Joint Profit Maximization: The cartel chooses Q=QA+QBQ = Q_A + Q_B to maximize total profit πTotal=πA+πB\pi_{Total} = \pi_A + \pi_B.
    πTotal=P×Q−MC×Q=(120−Q)Q−0×Q=120Q−Q2\pi_{Total} = P \times Q - MC \times Q = (120 - Q)Q - 0 \times Q = 120Q - Q^2.

  2. Find Monopoly Output: Take the derivative of total profit with respect to total quantity and set to zero.
    dπTotaldQ=120−2Q=0\frac{d\pi_{Total}}{dQ} = 120 - 2Q = 0
    2Q=1202Q = 120
    Q=60Q = 60.

  3. Monopoly Price:
    P=120−Q=120−60=60P = 120 - Q = 120 - 60 = 60.

  4. Joint Profits:
    πTotal=P×Q=60×60=3600\pi_{Total} = P \times Q = 60 \times 60 = 3600.

  5. Distribution of Profits: If they cooperate, they can agree on how to split the profits. A common assumption is to split them based on their Cournot outputs or equally. If they split equally:

    • Firm A's profit = 3600/2=18003600 / 2 = 1800.
    • Firm B's profit = 3600/2=18003600 / 2 = 1800.
      Alternatively, if they agree that each produces half of the monopoly output: QA=QB=60/2=30Q_A = Q_B = 60/2 = 30.
      Then P=120−(30+30)=60P = 120 - (30+30) = 60.
      πA=P×QA=60×30=1800\pi_A = P \times Q_A = 60 \times 30 = 1800.
      πB=P×QB=60×30=1800\pi_B = P \times Q_B = 60 \times 30 = 1800.
      This is consistent.

Profits if they Cooperate:

  • Total Profit = 36003600.
  • If split equally, each firm gets 18001800.

Comparison:

  • Cournot profits: πA=P×QA=40×40=1600\pi_A = P \times Q_A = 40 \times 40 = 1600. πB=P×QB=40×40=1600\pi_B = P \times Q_B = 40 \times 40 = 1600. Total profit = 32003200.
  • Cooperative profits: Total profit = 36003600.
    Cooperation leads to higher total profits (3600>32003600 > 3200) and higher profits for each firm (1800>16001800 > 1600).

Part 3: Condition for Cooperation in Repeated Game

This part considers an infinitely repeated game where firms can choose to cooperate or defect (cheat).

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第 8 題12 分

(1) 舉例一個商品市場,存在資訊不對稱,以模型分析該市場的無效率。(8%)
(2) 提出該如何提高該市場效率的作法。(4%)

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這一題的完整詳解

此題探討資訊不對稱 (Information Asymmetry) 如何導致市場無效率,並詢問如何提高效率。

核心觀念:

  • 資訊不對稱 (Information Asymmetry): 市場上買賣雙方擁有的資訊量不同。一方(通常是賣方)比另一方(通常是買方)擁有更多關於商品品質、特性或其自身狀況的資訊。
  • 市場無效率 (Market Inefficiency): 指資源未能得到最優配置的情況,可能表現為交易量低於潛在水準、品質低劣的商品充斥市場、價格扭曲等。
  • 逆向選擇 (Adverse Selection): 在交易發生前,資訊不對稱導致「劣幣驅逐良幣」的現象。擁有優勢資訊的一方(如劣質品賣家)比擁有劣勢資訊的一方(如買家)更有誘因參與交易,從而扭曲市場。
  • 道德風險 (Moral Hazard): 在交易發生後,擁有優勢資訊的一方(如被保險人)因行為難以被監管,而改變其行為,增加另一方的成本或風險。
  • 市場失靈 (Market Failure): 當市場無法有效率地配置資源時。

1. 舉例一個商品市場,存在資訊不對稱,以模型分析該市場的無效率。

舉例:二手車市場 (The Used Car Market)

這是經濟學中探討資訊不對稱的經典案例,由諾貝爾經濟學獎得主 George Akerlof 在其論文 "The Market for Lemons" 中提出。

  • 商品: 二手車。

  • 資訊不對稱: 賣方(二手車經銷商或前車主)比買方更了解車輛的實際品質(即這輛車是「好車」(good cars, or "peaches") 還是「爛車」(bad cars, or "lemons"))。買方只能透過有限的檢查來判斷。

  • 參與者:

    • 賣方 (Seller): 擁有關於汽車品質的優勢資訊。
    • 買方 (Buyer): 擁有劣勢資訊。
  • 市場模型:

    • 假設市場上有兩種品質的二手車:好車 (Peaches) 和爛車 (Lemons)。
    • 買方願意支付的價格取決於他們對車輛品質的平均預期。
    • 假設好車的價值(買方願意支付的最高價)為 VPV_P,爛車的價值為 VLV_L。且 VP>VLV_P > V_L。
    • 假設市場上有 N 輛車,其中 NPN_P 輛是好車,NLN_L 輛是爛車。
    • 賣方知道自己賣的是好車還是爛車。好車的賣方最低願意以 CPC_P 的價格出售(通常 CP<VPC_P < V_P),爛車的賣方最低願意以 CLC_L 的價格出售(通常 CL<VLC_L < V_L)。
  • 無效率分析 (逆向選擇):

    1. 買方的預期價格: 買方無法區分好車與爛車,他們會根據市場上所有車輛的平均價值來出價。假設市場上所有車輛的平均價值是 E[V]E[V]。買方願意支付的價格是 E[V]E[V]。
    2. 賣方的決策:
      • 爛車的賣方,若 VL>CLV_L > C_L,則願意以 E[V]E[V] 的價格出售。
      • 好車的賣方,若 VP>E[V]V_P > E[V],則他們認為以 E[V]E[V] 的價格出售是不划算的,他們會選擇退出市場,等待更好的時機或尋找願意支付更高價格的買家。
    3. 市場崩潰 (Market Collapse):
      • 隨著越來越多的好車賣家因為價格太低而退出市場,市場上剩下的車輛中,爛車的比例會越來越高。
      • 這會導致買方對市場上車輛平均價值的預期 E[V]E[V] 進一步下降。
      • 買方願意支付的價格 E[V]E[V] 會越來越低。
      • 這個過程會不斷循環,直到市場上只剩下爛車。最終,市場價格 E[V]E[V] 可能低於爛車賣家願意出售的最低價格 CLC_L,導致整個市場完全崩潰,沒有交易發生。
    4. 效率損失:
      • 交易量低於潛在水準: 即使存在高品質的商品(好車),由於買方無法識別其價值,這些商品也無法以其真實價值成交,甚至無法成交,導致潛在的交易未能發生。
      • 資源配置錯誤: 社會資源(高品質汽車)未能有效流通和利用。
      • 買方損失: 買方只能以一個平均價格購買,而無法以其真實價值購買到好車。

2. 提出該如何提高該市場效率的作法。

提高資訊不對稱市場效率的關鍵在於「減少或彌補資訊差距」,讓買方能更準確地判斷商品品質。

  • (a) 建立信譽機制 (Building Credibility Mechanisms):
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其他考古題

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